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PD Bio Units 1, 2, 3
Cell structure and function
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Most abundant elements within the body | oxygen (65%) carbon (18.5%) hydrogen (9.5%) nitrogen (3.2%) |
| Four basic types of tissue | epithelial (surface covering) connective (supporting) muscular (contracting) nervous (conducting) |
| Basic structural and functional components | cells |
| homeostasis is | a constant internal environment |
| negative feedback | counter-change that returns the factor toward the normal value |
| normal pH value | 7.35-7.43 |
| normal glucose value | 80-120mg/100ml |
| positive feedback | changes occurring away from a specific value are continually accelerated |
| Abnormal function of homeostasis equals | disease |
| Atrophy | a gradual decrease in the size of a tissue or organ as a result of a diminished size of its cells |
| Hypertrophy | The growth of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells |
| Hyperplasia | Stimulated mitotic divisions in cells by increased functional demands, resulting in an increase in tissue or organ size |
| Dysplasia | Abnormal maturation of cells within a tissue resulting in variations in size, shape, and appearance of cells |
| Metaplasia | The transformation of one cell type to another |
| Plasma membrane (gatekeeper) structure | Composed of phospholipid, protein and carb molecules. Lipids provide major barrier for movement across membrane. |
| plasma membrane function | gives form to cell. controls passage of materials in and out of the cell. transports molecules both directions |
| Cytoplasm Structure | Fluid in which organells are suspended in |
| Cytoplasm function | Serves as matrix in which chemical reactions occur. contains intracellular water |
| Endoplasmic reticulum structure | system of canals and tubules. two types (rough and smooth) |
| Endoplasmic reticulum function | supporting framework of cytoplasm, transports materials and provides attachment for ribosomes |
| golgi apparatus structure | cluster of flattened, membranous sacs involved packaging molecules for secretion and synthesis of carbs and steroids |
| golgi apparatus function | modification of proteins by adding carbs; packages molecules for secretion; secretes lipids and glycoproteins |
| mitochondria(powerhouse) structure | membranous sacs involved in the production of energy (ATP), provides energy for cell |
| mitochondria(powerhouse) function | release energy from food molecules and transform energy to ATP |
| lysosomes structure | membranous sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes which are involved in the digestion of foreign molecules and worn/damaged cells |
| Fibrils and microtubules structure | thin, hollow tubes |
| Fibrils and microtubules function | support cytoplasm and transport materials within the cytoplasm |
| Nucleus structure | largest organelle. contains chromatin and nucleolus |
| nucleus function | contains chromatin (48 chromosomes), nucleolus, and nucleoplasm/ Control center for all cellular functions |
| nuclear membrane function | surrounds nucleus, composed of protein and lipid molecules. the perinuclear cistern is the narrow space between the two walls of the nuclear membrane |
| chromatin structure | fibrous strands composed of protein and Dna molecules. In a differentiated cell the DNA making up the chromosomes cannot be seen individualls because DNA is unpacked and genes are forming the three types of RNA. |
| Chromatin function | conrols cellular activity for carrying on life processes. this material contains the 48 chromosomes, the genetic material which is made up of all the cell genes. |
| nucleolus structure | dense, non-membranous mass composed of protein and rRNA molecules |
| Nucleolus function | Forms and stores ribosomal RNA (rRNA) |
| (plasma membrane) Hydrophilic | mixing with water |
| (plasma membrane) Hydrophobic | not mixing with water |
| (plasma membrane) integral | embedded in the phospholipid bilayer |
| (plasma membrane) peripheral proteins | located on the inner surface, serve as enzymes |
| (plasma membrane) phoshpolipid bilayer | forms a major barrier to water soluble substances |
| The permeability of a cell membrane to molecules is a function of (there are 4) | 1. Size of molecules 2. Solubility in lipids 3. Ionic charge of molecules 4. The presence of carrier molecules |
| (plasma membrane) the carb containing molecules funtion to (there are 5) | 1. Repel negative objects due to - charge 2. Receptors for hormones + regulatory molecules 3. Form specific cell mrkrs,enable like cells to attach and aggregate 4. Enter into immune reactions 5. Cull markers (antigens) which identify blood and tissue |
| Diffusion | Characteristics: passive movements of molecules from high concentration to low Energy Source: Molecular motion Example: Exchange of respitory gases in lungs |
| Facilitated diffusion | Characteristics: Carrier substances are used to speed processes Energy Source: Carrier energy and molecular motion Example: Glucose entering cell with the help of insulin |
| Osmosis | CharacteristicsL Passive movement of solvent molecules through semi-permeable membrane due to concentration difference Energy source: Molecular motion (no ATP) Example: Water movement through cell wall to maintain turgidity |
| Filtration | Characteristics: The movement of water and solutes across the cell membrane due to hydrostatic pressure Energy source: Blood pressure Exampe: Removal of wastes within kidneys |
| Active transport | Charac: movement in the direction opposite that of diffusion – or – movement from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration Enrgy source: ATP (cellulas energy) Example: Movement of glucose and a.a. through membranes |
| Pinocytosis | Membrane engulfs minute droplets of fluid from surroundings Energy source: Cellular energy Example: Membranes forms vacuoles containing solute and solvent |
| Phagocytosis | Chrchteris: Membrane engulfs minute droplets of fluid from surroundings Energy source: Cellular energy Examples: White blood cell membrane engulfs bacterial cell |
| Aquaporins (osmosis) | cells that form channels specific for the movement of water across cellular membranes |
| Tonicity (osmosis) | concentration of nonpenetrating solutes in intrecellular vs extracellular fluids |
| Hypotonic solution (osmosis) | dilute, causes cell to swell |
| Hypertonic solution (osmosis) | concentrated solution, cell will shrink |
| Isotonic solution (osmosis) | Equal concentrations |
| Endocytosis | A process in which cell takes in materials from the outside by engulfing and fusing them with its plasma membrane. |
| Exocytosis | The process in which the cell releases materials to the outside by discharging them as membrane-bounded vesicles passing through the cell membrane. |
| Sorting signal | unique sequence of a.a. on newly produced proteins |
| Coat proteins | from the cytosol bind with another specific proteins facing the outer surface of the membrane |
| Docking markers | specific proteins facing outer surface of vesicle membrane |
| v-SNAREs | docking markers of secretory vesicles, link to t-SNARES |
| t-SNARE | found on targeted membrane, link to v-SNARES |
| perinuclear cisternae | narrow space between two walls of nuclear membrane |
| nuclear pores | extend through membrane |
| Nucleoplasm (karyolymph) | gel-like medium of nucleus |
| histones | DNA and proteins that make up chromosomes |
| In the cytoplasm, the mRNA and tRNA... | are used by the ribosomes for the assembling of proteins |
| cisternae | minute tubules |
| Rough ER | 1. Ribosomes attached 2. Ribosomes synthesize proteins - mainly integral membrane proteins and proteins to be secreted outside the cell |
| Smooth ER | 1. No ribosomes Involved in lipid synthesis, steroid hormone synthesis, and detox of alcohol, drugs, ets (mainly in the liver) |
| Drug tolerance | greater quantities to achieve the same effect. |
| With increased amounts of smooth ER... | calls can tolerate an increased amount of drugs |
| Ribosomes | Consists of subunits. Each subunit is a rbonucleoprotein particle w/ = amounts of RNA and protein |
| RNA of ribosomes | rRNA |
| Ribosomes are sites for... | protein synthesis |
| There are two distinct types of ribosomes: | 1. those bound to membranes (likk on rough ER) 2. those that are free |
| proteins that enter the cisternae of golgi apparatus are... | packaged within vesicles and make their way to cell membrane for secretion |
| docking marker compose surface proteins and attach to... | docking-marker acceptors |
| exocytosis | release of cargo to the outside of cell |
| secretion process of proteins synthesized byt he ER and packaged in the GOlgi | look at slide |
| cristae | folds of inner membranes, located in the mitochondria |
| adenosine triphosphate is also known as... | ATP |
| To obtain energy, cells split bond of ATP to obtain... | ADP |
| ATP converted to ADP looks like | ATP ------> ADP + Pi + energy for use by cell |
| Aerobic exercise | involves large muscle groups, performed for a long time |
| Anaerobic exercise | performed for a short amount of time, via glycolysis |
| Aging diseases | accumulation of flaws in our mitochondrial DNA |
| Proteases | powerful hydrolytic digestive enzymes |
| Amount of acid hydrolytic proteases that have been isolated from lysosomes | 30 to 50 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | Pain is due to the release of enzymes by lysosomes into joint capsule and digestion of surrounding tissue |
| Atrophy of uterus | normal regression of the uterus following childbirth. Due to lysosome digestive activity. |
| *How many different cell types are in the human body? | 200 |
| *Molecules that are relatively large can cross the plasma membrane if they are... | Lipid soluble |
| Of the 109 elements, how many are normally found in the human tissues? | 26 |
| Teeth and bone contains large amounts of: | Calcium |
| Thyroid gland contains large amount of: | Iodine |
| Atoms are... | smallest portion of an element that retains the characteristics of the element. Different from each other ONLY in NUMBER of basic particles they have (atomic number) |
| Electrons | -1 |
| Molecular weight of O2 | 2x16=32 |
| Covalent bonds | Atoms sharing one, two, or three electron pairs. |
| Anions | atoms with an electric charge |
| Cations | atoms with a positive charge |
| Hydrogen bonds | result from electrostatic interaction between electronegative atom of a molecule and neighboring hydrogen atom. |
| Organic compounds all contain Carbon except for... | Co2, CO, NaCN[sodium cyanide}, and NaHCO3 [sodium bicarbonate] |
| Three common inorganic compounds are... | Water, Carbon dioxide, and oxygen |
| Organic compounds have these 5 chracteristics: | 1. 4 electrons in outer shell 2. can make 4 covalent bonds 3. Present in a large number of compounds 4. Only H is found more often 5. Can bond to many elements, bust most commonly to H, O, N and more C |
| Four major classes of organic compounds: | 1. nucleic acids 2. Proteins 3. Carbohydrates 4. Lipids |
| A nucleic acid is composed of | nucleotide |
| nucleotides in nucleic acid contain... | a nitrogen-containing base, a 5-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group |
| a chain of nucleotieds attached through dehydration synthesis by linkages called... | phosphodiester linkages |
| single ring compounds of nucleic acids | pyrimidine |
| double ring compound of nucleic acid | purine |
| adenine and guanine | purines |
| cytosine, thymine, uracil | pyrimidines |
| DNA are organized into a structure called a | double helix |
| Dna molecule consists of what hydrogen bonds? | C-G A-T |
| RNA molecule consists of what hydrogen bonds? | C-G A-U |
| The principle difference between DNA and RNA is... | In RNA, uracil takes the plae of thymine |
| Blueprints of the cell | Nucleic acids |
| How many types of RNA are there? | three |
| RNA has how many strands? | one. RNA is single stranded |
| mRNA is also known as | messenger RNA |
| tRNA is also known as | transfer RNA |
| rRNA is also known as | robosomal RNA |
| messenger RNA acts as a template for | protein synthesis |
| mRNA processing involves the capping of | a 5-methyl-guanosine cap |
| the second process of mRNA is | polyadenelated tail of Poly-A tail. This helps protect the strand from digestive enzymes while in the cytoplasm |
| tRNA carries a.a. in the cytoplasm to | the ribosomes and acts as a translation molecule |
| tRNA has an anticodon that | recognizes a sequence of mRNA |
| rRNA is made in the | nucleolus. it travels out into the ctoplasm where it is bound to ribosomal proteins |
| a ribosome consists of | 60% rRNA 40% protein |
| Protein synthesis involves two major steps: | transcription translation |
| the mRNA is transported into the cytoplasm where it is translated by | the ribosome and tRNA to make a functional protein |
| The principle enzyme that unzips the DNA | Helicase |
| enzymes that help keep the DNA uncoiled | Single stranded Binding proteins Topoisomerase |
| three enzymes that help in transcription | helicase, single stranded binding proteins and topoisomerase, and polymerase |
| Strand that is used as the DNA template | Template or antisense strand |
| DNA strand NOT used for transcription | sense strand |
| a codon includes how many nucleotides? | 3 |
| mRNA strand is read | 5' to 3' |
| tRNA | molecule that contains anticodon (recognition region)and a.a. recognition sequence that binds the tRNA to the a.a. |
| Inherited diseases | result in defective genes (mutations) that are passed from parent to offspring (ie. sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, many other metabolic disorders) |
| Proteins are... | long chains of a.a.'s |
| Two proteins can differ from eachother in: | 1. Number of a.a. 2. Sequence of a.a. 3. Type of a.a. |
| Common function of proteins | form enzymes, hormones, antibodies, serve as receptor sites, act as carrier molecules in active transport, help regulate osmotic solutions, provide tensile strength, buffer systems, metabolize to provide energy |
| dipeptide | 2 a.a. joined by one peptide bond |
| polypeptide | many a.a. joined by peptide bonds |
| memorize structures on 28 | okay? |
| chromosome | structure composed of DNA and associated proteins that carry hereditary info |
| chromatid | one copy of chromosome formed by DNA replication joined by centromere to another hromatid |
| centromere | area on chromatid that holds them together |
| gene | region of DNA that codes for a specific protein or RNA. Responsible for traits and synthesis of protein molecules |
| diploid (autosomes) | cell that contains two sets of homologous chromosomes |
| haploid (sex chromosomes) | contains half the number of chromosomes (sperm and ova) |
| chromosomes are responsible for the passing of genetic material from cell to another through the process of | DNA replication |
| very long strand of DNA are wrapped around proteins called... | histones |
| a chromosome consists of two | chromatids |
| humans have how many pairs of homologous chromosomes? | 22 |
| photograph of chromosomes | karyotypes |
| a person is homozygous when... | homologous chromosomes have alleles that are the same |
| a person is heterozygous when... | the person has different alleles |
| genotype | specific allelic or genetic composition of an organism |
| phenotype | set of physical. observable traits |
| when alleles are heterozygous, whate allele is expressed? | the dominant allele |
| Down syndrome | there is an extra chromosome 21. also known as trisomy-21 or mongolism. |
| Carbohydrates have four principal functions, and they are: | 1. Fuel of a cell 2. Contribute to cellular structure 3. Form a part of the structure of DNA and RNA molecules 4. Can be converted into a storage form such as glycogen that can be converted to glucose |
| Monosaccharides | Simple sugars |
| Carbohydrates are divided into three categories according to their size: | 1. monosacharrides 2. disacharrides 3. polysaccharides |
| isomers | closely related molecules |
| disaccharides | when two monosaccharides are hooked together |
| 3 primary hexose disaccharides are: | Maltose Sucrose Lactose |
| The disaccharide maltose is | glucose + glucose |
| The disaccharide sucrose is | glucose + fructose |
| The disaccharide lactose is | glucose + galactose |
| hydrolosis | chemical reaction where a molecule is broken down by a reaction with water |
| polysaccharides | complex carbohydrates composed of many simple sugars bonded in long chains |
| The two most common polysaccharides of glucose | starch and glycogen |
| how glucose is stored in the body | glycogen |
| lipids are commonly known as... | fats |
| lipids contain mainly... | C, H, and O like carbs, but they contain less oxygen and are insoluble in water |
| fats are categorized as either... | saturated or unsaturated |
| the fats that are solid at room temp | saturated |
| the fats that are liquid at room temp | unsaturated |
| 3 saturated fats | Butyric CH3-(CH2)2-COOH Palmitic CH3-(CH2)14-COOH Stearic CH3-(CH2)16-COOH |
| 3 unsaturated fats | Oleic CH3-(CH2)7-CH=CH-(CH2)7-COOH Linoleic CH3-(CH2)4-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-(CH2)7-COOH Linolenic (look at page 33) |
| The average adult is what percent water? | 50-60% |
| How many liters of water are in the average human body? | 40 liters |
| Do men or women have more total body water? | Men. Women have more fatty tissues |
| Does total body water percentage decrease or increase as you get older? | decrease |
| do fatter or thinner people have a higher percent of body water? | thinner. |
| Daily water intake/Daily water output | 2500 ml |
| in cases of dehydration, what is secreted? | ADH, leading to an increased retention of body fluids |
| Where is ADH produced? | The hypothalmus |
| Where is ADH secreted from? | the posterior pituitary |
| hypovolemia is also known as | dehydration |
| hypolemia symptoms | shrinking of brain cells, plasma volume decrease, weight loss, decreased blood pressure |
| Hypervolemia is also know as | overhydration |
| Hypervolemia response | deceased ADH secretion, increases urinary output |
| Strong acids dissociate completely in water to form | hydrogen ions (H+) and anions |
| Weak acids hold on to most of their | hydrogen ions |
| [H+] = 10^?M | [H+] = 10^-7M |
| [OH-]= 10^?M | [OH-]= 10^-7M |
| The average young adult has how many liters of blood? | 5-6 liters |
| Thrombocytes | Platelets |
| Plasma is what percent water? | 90-92% water 7-9% solids |
| hematocrit | percentage of cellular elements in blood |
| percentage of hematocrit in blood | 45% |
| normal hematocrit for males | 42-48% |
| normal hematocrit for females | 38-44% |
| another word for plasma | serum |
| largest portion of the plasma constituents | plasma proteins |
| types of plasma proteins | albumin, globulins, Clotting factors |
| functions as osmotic pressure regulator | albumin |
| Globulins | Alpha beta Gamma |
| Alpha and beta function as | carrier vehicles to prevent substances in blood from leaving capillary too rapidly |
| function of Gamma | Natural and acquired immunity, antibodies |
| origin of plasma proteins | albumin, alpha, beta formed in liver gamma globulins formed in reticulo-endothelial system |
| Characteristics of erythrocytes | no nucleus, cannot multiply, biconcave dics, no ER, do not synthesize proteins |
| function of erythrocytes | transport hemoglobin |
| concentration of erythrocytes in males | 5.5 million/mm^3 |
| concentration of erythrocytes in females | 4.5 million/m^3` |
| increases # of RBCs | Altitude, muscular exercise, temp, age (higher in infants) |
| hematopoiesis | production of all blood cells |
| erythropoiesis | production of RBCs |
| pathway for erythropoiesis | stem cell-->basophilic erythroblast-->polychromatophilic erythroblast-->normoblast (loss of nucleus)--> reticulocyte--> mature RBC |
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gemmagrover
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