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Chapter 1-6 A & P
Chapter 1, 4, 5, 6 A&P
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Cells contain processes that receive and generate electrical signals to communicate with other cells. | Nervous tissue |
| Tissue has elongated cell that shorten and cause movement | Muscle tissue |
| Tissue contains more extracellular matrix than cells | Connective tissue |
| Primary tissue types that exhibit cellularity. | Epithelial, Muscle, Nervous |
| Cranial | Skull |
| Facial | Face |
| Axial | the central part of the body, the head and trunk. |
| Frontal | Forehead |
| Orbital | Eye |
| Otic | Ear |
| Nasal | Nose |
| Buccal | Cheek |
| Oral | Mouth |
| Mental | Chin |
| Occipital | back of the head |
| Cervical | Neck |
| Thoracic | Chest |
| Sternal | Breast Bone |
| Pectoral | Chest |
| Mammary | Breast |
| Umbilical | naval |
| Coxal | Hip |
| Pelvic | pelvis |
| Pubic | Genital area |
| Dorsal | Back |
| Scapular | Shoulder blade |
| Vertebral | Spinal Cord |
| Lumbar | The area of the back between the lowest rib and the buttocks. |
| Appendicular | The extremities or limbs |
| Acromial | the highest point of the shoulder. |
| Axillary | Armpit |
| Brachial | Arm |
| Antecubital | Anterior surface of the elbow |
| carpal | wrist |
| manual | hand |
| Palmar | Palm of hand |
| Digital | Fingers or toes |
| Inguinal | The groin where the thigh attaches to the pelvis |
| Gluteal | Buttocks |
| Femoral | Thigh |
| Patellar | Front surface of the knee |
| Popliteal | Posterior surface of the knee |
| Crural | anterior surface of the leg |
| Fibular or Peroneal | Lateral side of the leg |
| Sural | posterior surface of the leg |
| Tarsal | Ankle |
| Pedal | foot |
| planter | sole of foot |
| calcaneal | heel |
| Superior | above |
| Inferior | bellow |
| Anterior (Ventral) | closer to the front of the body |
| Posterior (Dorsal) | Closer to back of body |
| Medial | Closer to midline of the body |
| Lateral | Father from midline of body |
| Intermediate | Between two structures |
| Lpsilateral | Same side of the body |
| Contralateral | opposite side of the body |
| Proximal | nearer to point of attachment of limb to trunk |
| Distal | Father from point of attachment of limb to trunk |
| Superficial | Closer to surface of body |
| Deep | farther from surface of body |
| Sagitttal Planes | pass vertically through the body or organs and divide them into right and left sections |
| Midsagittal Planes | A plane passes vertically through the midline and divides the body into equal right and left halves. |
| Parasagittal Plane | a plane dives the body into unequal right and left portions. |
| Frontal or coronal plane | passes vertically through the body or organs and produces anterior and posterior sections. |
| Transverse | passes horizontally through the body and produces superior and inferior sections. |
| Oblique planes | passes through the body at an angle forming oblique sections. |
| Homeostasis | in a general sense refers to stability, balance or equilibrium. It is the body's attempt to maintain a constant internal environment. Maintaining a stable internal environment requires constant monitoring and adjustments as conditions change. |
| Three essential concepts will form the basis of our study and will unify the various sections: | Complementarity of structure and function, Hierarchy of structural organization,Homeostasis |
| Define Anatomy | (Greek "to cut apart") - the study of the form, or structure of body parts and of how these parts relate to one another. Static image. |
| Define Physiology | the study of the functioning of the body's structural machinery - how the parts of the body work and carry out their life-sustaining activities. Dynamic processes. |
| Regional anatomy: | Study all of the blood vessels, or all of the muscles, or all of the bones… at once. |
| Systemic anatomy: | All anatomical structures of a specific region (e.g. the thorax, or the Head and Neck) are all studied together. |
| Microscopic anatomy: | examination of body tissues using a microscope |
| Define Cytology | study of the cells of the body |
| Define Histology | study of the tissues of the body |
| Define Embryology | developmental changes occurring before birth |
| Define Pathology | disease related changes |
| Molecular biology: | subcellular level |
| Physiology is also subdivided into several specialized areas based on the functioning of | specific organ systems (such as digestive, muscular, etc.) or a functional system (such as the immune system). |
| "Complementarity of structure and function" | function always reflects structure. What a structure can do depends on its specific form. |
| "Hierarchy of Structural Organization" | the human body incorporates many levels of structural complexity |
| "Homeostasis" | ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions despite a changing external environment. Dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance. |
| Maintenance of Life: Functional characteristics | Maintenance of boundaries,Cell membranes,Movement,Responsiveness, Digestion,Metabolism,Excretion, Reproduction,Growth |
| Survival Needs | The ultimate goal of nearly all body systems is to maintain life. Requires several factors acting together for its persistence,Nutrients,carbohydrates,Oxygen,Water,Body Temperature,Atmospheric Pressure |
| Abdominopelvic Quadrants | right upper, right lower, left upper, right lower |
| Serous membranes | named for the cavity and organs with which they are associated, parietal pericardium,pericardial (heart) cavity, visceral pericardium - covers the heart,parietal pleura - lines thoracic wall in the pleural cavity,visceral pleura - covers the lungs. |
| Parietal - "parie" | means wall |
| Visceral - "viscus" | Means an organ in the body cavity |
| Part of the membrane lining the cavity walls | parietal serosa -folds on itself to form the visceral serosa which covers the organs in the cavity. |
| Control Mechanisms | Control Center:determines the set point, analyzes input and determines the appropriate response,Receptor,Effector |
| Cells | are the basic building blocks of life and performs vital functions in an organism, stated in Cell Theory. |
| Tissue | the second level of organization. It is created by joining cells that have similar function or structure. |
| Organ | s a group of tissues that perform a specific function or groups of functions. This is the third level of organization. |
| An organ system cannot live by itself and is | a collection of organs that perform a specific function- the circulatory system or digestive to form an organism. |
| organism | any living form, ex. humans, This is the fifth and last level of organization. |
| Chemical | is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties |
| Representative organs Respiratory system | lungs pharynx (throat) larynx (voice box) trachea (windpipe) bronchial tubes (leading into and out of lungs) |
| major function of Respiratory System | -transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air -helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids -air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords produces sounds |
| Representative organs of Integumentary System | skin hair sweat glands nails oil glands |
| major function of Integumentary System | supports and protects body -provides a surface area for muscle attachments -aids body movements -houses cells that produce blood cells -stores mineral and lipids (fats) |
| Representative organs of Muscular System | muscles (composed of skeletal-muscle tissue & usually attached to bones) |
| Circulatory system: | the heart, blood, and blood vessels |
| Digestive system: | the salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, rectum, and anus |
| Endocrine system: | the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal body, thyroid, parathyroids, and adrenals |
| Integumentary system: | the skin, hair, and nails |
| Lymphatic system: | the leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus, and spleen |
| Muscular system: | the muscles |
| Nervous system: | the nerves, brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves |
| Reproductive system: | the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis |
| Respiratory system: | the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm |
| Skeletal system: | the bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons |
| Urinary system: | the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra |
| Organ systems may be | closely intertwined and called things like the musculoskeletal system or neuroendocrine system. |
| Define Anatomy | ana=up / tomy=process of cutting up the science of body structures and the relationships among them (first studied by dissection) |
| Define Physiology | physio=nature / logy=study of the science of body functions/how the body parts work |
| Define Chemical level of structural organization | -includes atoms (H, O, S, C, N, P, Ca, S) and molecules (glucose, DNA) -like letters and alphabets (very basic level) |
| Define Cellular level of structural organization | -composed of molecules -basic structural and functional living units of an organism -smallest living units in the human body (muscle, nerve, epithelial cells) -like words of language |
| Define Tissue level of structural organization | are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function (epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous tissue) -like how words put together to form sentences |
| Define Organ level of structural organization | -composed of 2 or more different types of tissues -has specific functions -has recognizable shapes (stomach, lungs, kidney, heart, bones, skin, liver, brain) -like paragraphs |
| Define System level of structural organization | aka. organ-system level -consists of related organs (paragraphs) w a common function (digestive system) *sometimes organs are part of more than one system -like a chapter |
| Define Organismal level of structural organization | -is any living individual -all parts of the human body functioning together constitute the organism -like a book |
| Identify the 11 principle systems of the human body | Digestive Reproductive Nervous Urinary Cardiovascular Lymphatic Endocrine Respiratory Integumentary Skeletal Muscular (DRNUCLERISM) |
| Representative organs & major function of Digestive System | ORGANS OF GI TRACT,mouth,pharynx(throat),esophagus,stomach,small and large intestines anus,ASSISTING ACCESSORY ORGANS salivaryglands,liver,gallbladder,pancreas-achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food -absorbs nutrients -eliminates solid waste |
| Representative Nervous system organs | brain,spinal cord,nerves,sense organs (eyes, ears, etc.) |
| major function of Nervous System | -generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate bodily activities -detects changes in body's internal and external environments, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions |
| Representative Urinary organs | kidneys ureters urinary bladder urethra |
| major function of Urinary System | -produces, stores, eliminates urine -eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood -helps maintain acid-base balance of body fluids -maintains body's mineral balance -helps regulate production of RBCs |
| Representative Cardiovascular organs | blood heart blood vessels |
| major function of Cardiovascular System | heart pumbs blood-vessels,blood carries O and nutrient-cells & carbon dioxide then regulates acid-base balance,temp,& water content of body fluids, Blood helps components help defend agaist disease and repair |
| Representative Lymphatic system organs | lymphatic fluid (lymph) and vessels spleen thymus lymph tonsils |
| major function of Lymphatic System | -returns proteins and fluid to blood -carries lipids from GI tract to blood -includes structures where lymphocytes that protect against disease-causing microbes mature and proliferate |
| Representative organs of Endocrine system | HORMONE-PRODUCING GLANDS pineal gland hypothalamus pituitary gland parathyroid glands adrenal lands pancreas ovaries testes and hormone-producing cells in several other organs |
| major function of Endocrine System | regulates body activities by releasing hormones (chemical messengers transported in blood from an endocrine gland or tissue to a target organ) |
| major function of Muscular System | -produces body movements -stabilizes body position -generates heat |
| Identify and briefly define the 6 basic life processes of the human body | Metabolism , Responsiveness, Movement,Differentiation, Reproduction |
| Metabolism | the sum of all chemical processes in body -catabolism (breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components) -anabolism (building up) |
| Responsiveness | body's ability to detect and respond to internal (body temp) and external (noise) changes |
| Movement | motion of whole body, individual organs, single cells, and organelles |
| Growth | increase in body size that results from an increase in the size and/or number of existing cells |
| Differentiation | development of a cell from unspecialized to specialized state (specialized in structure and function different from its ancestor/precursor cells aka. stem cells) |
| Reproduction | formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement |
| Define Homeostasis | homeo=sameness / statis=standing still =condition of equilibrium/balance in body's internal vent due to constant interaction of body's regulatory processes |
| Explain the effects of stress (internal, external, psychological) on homeostasis | Causes mostly the nervous and endocrine system to work together or independently -nervous system(fast): nerve impulses(action potentials) -endocrine system(slow): glands secrete hormones *both usually work through negative feedback systems |
| Describe and state the importance of ECF | -composition of interstitial fluid (aka. body's internal enviorment) must be precisely regulated for proper functioning of cells -->composition always changing (substances move between it and blood plasma via capillaries |
| 3 basic components of a feedback system | Receptor, Control Center, Effector |
| Receptor | a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition (=a monitored variable: ie. body temp, BP, blood glucose level) and sends input to a control center -ie. nerve endings in skin detect temperature drop |
| Control Center | sets range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained -evaluates input from receptors -generates output commands (ie. nerve impulses, hormones) when necessary -ie. brain sends nerve impulses |
| Effector | body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response(effect that changes the the controlled condition) -ie. skeletal muscles to shiver, generates heat |
| operation of a negative feedback system | Negative: reverses a change in a controlled condition (ie. increase in BP) -action continues and gradually slows until controlled condition is back to normal -regulate conditions that remain fairly stable over long periods |
| operation of a positive feedback system | Positive: strengthens/reinforces a change in a controlled condition -action continues until a mechanism interrupts it -usually reinforce conditions that do not happen very often |
| Give an example of a negative feedback system | respiration rate, body temperature, heart rate |
| Give an example of a positive feedback system | blood clotting, Labor |
| Identify and define the directional terms used in association with the human body | superior inferior anterior posterior medial lateral intermediate ipsilateral contralateral proximal distal superficial deep |
| Identify and define the anatomical planes used in association with the human body | sagittal plane -midsagittal plane (median plane): divides left and right into equal sections -parasagittal plane (para=near): divides left and right into unequal sections frontal or coronal plane transverse plane, oblique plane |
| What Accessory structures of the skin include? | he dermis, epidermis, hypodermis, subcutaneous layer, and hair follicles |
| Structure and function of the body are closely related | Structure mirrors, function, Bones of the skull are heavy and secure to protect brain function.The thin air sacs of the lungs permit movement of gases from the lungs to the blood. |
| Structure mirrors function | This structure is the liver, which has the function of filtering blood and producing bile. Can you see how the function is determined by the structure, and vice versa |
| Subdivisions of Anatomy: Six Girls Developed Huge Chests, & Pimples | Surface Anatomy, Gross Anatomy, Developmental Anatomy, Histology, Cytology, & Pathology. |
| Surface Anatomy | is the study of form and markings of the body surface, often explored through visualization or palpation (without any “cutting”). |
| Gross Anatomy | is the study of anatomical structures visible to unaided eye. After making the appropriate surface marking in the prior picture, the gross dissection proceeds through “cutting.” |
| Gross Anatomy can be studied by two general approaches: Smile Romeo | Systemic and Regional |
| Developmental anatomy | is the study of the fertilized egg developing into its adult form. |
| Embryology | is a subcategory of developmental anatomy (conception to 8th week of gestation). |
| Levels of Organization: Order from smallest to largest. | Chemical: atomic & molecular, Cellular, Tissue, organ system, and Organism. |
| The Cell | are the basic structural and functional units of an organism |
| Tissues | are groups of cells that work together to perform a similar function. |
| While there are many different types of cells, they all work to form 4 basic types of tissues: EMCN | Epithelium, Muscle, Connective tissue and Nerves. |
| Organs | are structures composed of two or more different types of tissues (all but the simplest of organs have all 4 basic tissues represented.) |
| Organs have specific | specific functions and recognizable shapes. Example: The skin contains Epithelium, Connective Tissues, Nerves, and Muscle. |
| organ system | consists of related organs with a common function. For instance, the Digestive system handles all aspects of taking in and breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating wastes. |
| organism | consists of a collection of organ systems |
| Six important life processes: | Metabolism Responsiveness Movement Growth Differentiation Reproduction In health, all parts of the body must be functioning together in a process called homeostasis. |
| Metabolism | is the sum of all the catabolic (breaking down) and anabolic (building up) chemical processes that occur in the body. |
| Responsiveness | is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes which might represent an opportunity… or a threat!Decrease in body temperature Responding to sound Nerve (electrical signals) and muscle cells (contracting) |
| Movement | is any motion, including movement of tiny subcellular structures, or movement inside cells or organs. Leg muscles move the body from one place to another. |
| Growth | involves an increase in body size due to an increase in existing cells, number of cells, or both. In bone growth, materials between cells increase. |
| Differentiation | is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state. Cells have specialized structures and functions that differ from precursor cells. Stem cells give rise to cells that undergo differentiation. |
| Reproduction | is the formation of new cells (growth, repair, or replacement) or the production of a new individual. |
| equilibrium | (balance) in the body’s internal environment. It is a dynamic condition meant to keep body functions in the narrow range compatible with maintaining life. |
| Body fluids are defined as | dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of the cell. Maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids is important. |
| Intracellular Fluid (ICF) | is the fluid within cells |
| Extracellular Fluid (ECF) | is the fluid outside cells |
| Interstitial fluid is | ECF between cells and tissues |
| Some important body fluids: | Blood Plasma is the ECF within blood vessels. Lymph is the ECF within lymphatic vessels. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is the ECF in the brain and spinal cord. Synovial fluid is the ECF in joints. Aqueous humor is the ECF in eyes. |
| Cellular function depends on the regulation of the composition of the | interstitial fluid |
| Composition of interstitial fluid changes | as substances move between plasma and the interstitial fluid. |
| Movement back and forth across capillary walls provides | nutrients (glucose, oxygen, ions) to tissue cells and removes waste (carbon dioxide). |
| Control of homeostasis is constantly being challenged by: PCP | Physical insults,Changes in the internal environment,Physiological stress. |
| Physical insults: Changes in Homeostasis | such as intense heat or lack of oxygen |
| Changes in the internal environment: Changes in Homeostasis | such as a drop in blood glucose due to lack of food |
| Physiological stress: Changes in Homeostasis | such as demands of work or school Disruptions are mild if balance is quickly restored. Intense disruptions are often prolonged and result in disease (poisoning or severe infections) or death. |
| Cycle of events: Feedback System | Body is monitored and re-monitored. Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition. |
| Three basic components: Feedback System (RCE) | Receptor Control center Effector |
| Receptor | is a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition (such as body temperature) and sends input to the control center. |
| The control center | sets the range of values to be maintained – usually this is done by the brain. Evaluates input received from receptors and generates output command |
| Output involves | nerve impulses, hormones, or other chemical agents. Brain acts as a control center receiving nerve impulses from skin temperature receptors. |
| The effector | receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition. |
| Negative Feedback systems: | Reverses a change in a controlled condition Regulation of blood pressure (force exerted by blood as it presses again the walls of the blood vessels) |
| Positive Feedback systems: | Strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions Normal child birth |
| Diagnosis of Disease is done by assessing: | Signs and symptoms Medical history Collecting information about event Present illnesses and past medical problems |
| Physical examination: | Orderly evaluation of the body and its function Noninvasive techniques and other vital signs (pulse) |
| Phalanges | Toes or fingers |
| Cranial cavity | is formed by the cranial bones. Protects the brain |
| Vertebral canal | is formed by bones of vertebral column. Contains the spinal cord |
| Meninges | Layers of protective tissue that line the cranial cavity and vertebral canal |
| Thoracic cavity | is formed by the sternum, ribs, and the thoracic portion of the bony vertebral column. Also called chest cavity Stabilized by the internal and external muscles of the chest |
| Mediastinal cavity | Located in the central part of the thoracic cavity |
| Left and Right Pleural cavities | Two fluid-filled spaces that surround each lung |
| Abdominopelvic Cavity | extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the abdominal wall and bones and muscles of the pelvis. |
| Abdominopelvic Cavity is divided into two portions: | Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small and large intestines. Pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, internal organs of reproductive system, and portions of the large intestine. |
| Membranes of the body cavities: The thoracic and abdominal body cavities | are lined by thin,slippery, double-layered membranes called serous membranes. These membranes adhere to the outer surface of the organs or “viscera”, and then double-back on themselves to line the body cavity wall. |
| Visceral layer | covers the organs within the cavities |
| Parietal layer | lines the cavity walls |
| The right and left pleural membranes | are the serous membranes that covers the lungs (visceral pleura) and the walls of the pleural cavity (parietal pleura). |
| The pericardial membrane is | the serous membrane that covers the heart (visceral pericardium) and the pericardial cavity walls (parietal pericardium). |
| The peritoneal membrane is | the serous membrane that covers the abdominal organs (visceral peritoneum) and the abdominal cavity walls (parietal peritoneum). |
| Other body cavities | Oral, Nasal cavity, Orbital cavities, Middle ear cavities, & Synovial cavities are found freely moveable joints like the large joint of the shoulder and hip. |
| Major Body Organs | Brain,Spinal Cord,Thyroid Gland Thymus,The diaphragm is a powerful skeletal muscle that divides the thorax, (thoracic cavity) from the abdomen, (abdominal cavity). Kidneys,Urinary bladder,Ovaries, Uterine,tubes,Uterus Testes |
| Vertical and horizontal lines pass through the umbilicus | Right upper quadrant (RUQ) liver Left upper quadrant (LUQ) spleen and left kidney Right lower quadrant (RLQ) appendix Left lower quadrants (LLQ) left ovary (LLQ) |
| Dividing the abdomen and pelvis into regions | is done using a Tic-Tac-Toe grid.It is a little more complex than using quadrants, but is also more specific There are nine abdominopelvic regions. |
| Medical Imaging | Techniques and procedures used to create images of the human body Allow visualization of structures inside the body Diagnosis of anatomical and physiological disorders Conventional radiography (X-rays) have been in use since the late 1940’s |
| Radiography | is done using X-rays to produce an image of interior structures. They are inexpensive and quick |
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | is done using an extremely powerful magnetic field. It is a safe procedure but cannot be used on patients containing metal. |
| Ultrasound Scanning (sonography) | is done using high frequency sound waves. It is noninvasive and painless. |
| Radionuclide Scanning | is done by giving a radioactive substance (radionuclide) intravenously. |
| Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan) | is done by injecting a substance emitting positively charged particles into the body. The collision between positrons and negatively charged electron in body tissues produce gamma rays used to form a computer assisted image. |
| Endoscopy | is done using a lighted instrument with a lens projecting an image onto a monitor. |
| Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques | are used to inspect different aspects of the body. Palpation is gently touching body surfaces with hands. Auscultation is listening to body sounds (stethoscope). Percussion is tapping on the body surface with fingertips and listening to echoes. |
| What is a Tissue? | A tissue is a group of cells,Hard (bone), semisolid (fat), or liquid (blood) Histology is the science that deals with the study of tissues. Pathologist specialized in laboratory studies of cells and tissue for diagnoses |
| Connective | Protects, supports, and binds organs. Stores energy as fat, provides immunity |
| Epithelial | Covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, duct, and forms glands |
| Muscular | Generates the physical force needed to make body structures move and generate body heat |
| Nervous | Detect changes in body and responds by generating nerve impulses |
| Tissues of the body develop from three primary germ layers: | Ectoderm, Endoderm, and Mesoderm |
| All connective tissue and most muscle tissues drive from | mesoderm |
| Nervous tissue develops from | ectoderm |
| Cell Junctions | Contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells |
| most common types of cell junctions are | Tight junctions Adherens junctions Desmosomes Hemidesmosomes Gap junctions |
| Tight Junctions | Fuse cells together Seal off passageways between adjacent cells Common in epithelial tissues of the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder Help to retard the passage of substances between cells and leaking into the blood or surrounding tissues |
| Dense layer of proteins called | plaque |
| plaque | Resist separation of cells during contractile activities Located inside of the plasma membrane attached to both membrane proteins and microfilaments of the cytoskeleton |
| Transmembrane glycoproteins called | cadherins insert into the plaque and join cells |
| In epithelial cells, adhesion belts | encircle the cell |
| Desmosomes | Contain plaque and cadherins that extends into the intercellular space to attach adjacent cells together |
| Desmosome plaque | attaches to intermediate filaments that contain protein keratin Prevent epidermal cells from separating under tension and cardiac muscles cells from pulling apart during contraction |
| Hemidesmosomes | Resemble half of a desmosomeDo not link adjacent cells but anchor cells to the basement membrane Contains transmembrane glycoprotein integrin Integrins attach to intermediate filaments and the protein laminin present in the basement membrane |
| Gap Junctions | Connect neighboring cells via tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexons |
| Contain membrane proteins called | connexins |
| Epithelial tissue | consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers Closely packed and held tightly together Covering and lining of the body Free surface |
| 3 major functions of epithelial tissue | Selective barrier that regulates the movement of materials in and out of the body Secretory surfaces that release products onto the free surface Protective surfaces against the environment |
| General Features of Epithelial Cells | differ in structure and have specialized functions Apical (free) surface Faces the body surface, body cavity, lumen, or duct Lateral surfaces Faces adjacent cells Basal surface Opposite of apical layer and adhere to extracellular materials |
| Epithelial Cells have | Basement membrane Thin double extracellular layer that serves as the point of attachment and support for overlying epithelial tissue |
| Epithelial Cells have | Basal lamina Closer to and secreted by the epithelial cells Contains laminin, collagen, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans |
| Epithelial Cells have | Reticular lamina Closer to the underlying connective tissue Contains collagen secreted by the connective tissue cells |
| Epithelial Tissues | Own nerve supply Avascular or lacks its own blood supply Blood vessels in the connective tissue bring in nutrients and eliminate waste High rate of cell division for renew and repair Numerous roles in the body (i.e. protection and filtration) |
| Covering and lining epithelium | Outer covering of skin and some internal organs |
| Glandular epithelium | Secreting portion of glands (thyroid, adrenal, and sweat glands) |
| Arrangement of cells in layers | Consist of one or more layers depending on function |
| Simple epithelium | Single layer of cells that function in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption |
| Pseudo stratified epithelium | Appear to have multiple layers because cell nuclei at different levels All cells do not reach the apical surface |
| Stratified epithelium | Two or more layers of cells that protect underlying tissues in areas of wear and tear |
| Different Types of Covering and Lining Epithelium | Cells vary in shape depending on their function |
| Squamous | Thin cells, arranged like floor tiles Allows for rapid passage of substances |
| Cuboidal | As tall as they are wide, shaped like cubes or hexagons May have microvilli Function in secretion or absorption |
| Columnar | Much taller than they are wide, like columns May have cilia or microvilli Specialized function for secretion and absorption |
| Transitional | Cells change shape, transition for flat to cuboidal Organs such as urinary bladder stretch to larger size and collapse to a smaller size |
| Simple Epithelium | Simple squamous epithelium Simple cuboidal epithelium Simple columnar epithelium (nonciliated and ciliated) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (nonciliated and cilated) |
| Simple squamous epithelium | Single layer of cells that resembles a tiled floor on the surface Nucleus is centrally located and appears flattened oval or sphere Found at sites for filtration or diffusion |
| Covering and Lining Epithelium | Endothelium The type of simple squamous that lines the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels Mesothelium The type of epithelial layer of serous membranes such as the pericardium, pleura, or peritoneum Unlike other epithelial tissue, Both are der |
| Simple cuboidal epithelium | Cuboidal shaped cells Cell nuclei round and centrally located Found in thyroid gland and kidneys Functions in secretion and absorption |
| Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium | Contains columnar cells with microvilli at their apical surface and goblet cells Secreted mucus serves as lubricant for the lining of digestive, respiratory, reproductive and urinary tracts Also prevents the destruction of the stomach lining by acidic g |
| Ciliated simple columnar epithelium | Columnar epithelial cells with cilia at the apical surface In respiratory tract, goblet cells are interspersed among ciliated columnar epithelia Secreted mucus on the surface traps inhaled foreign particles. Beating cilia moves particles to the throat |
| Covering and Lining Epithelium | Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Appears to have several layers due to nuclei are various depths All cells are attached to the basement membrane in a single layer but some do not extend to the apical surface Ciliated cells secrete mucus and bear ci |
| Stratified Epithelium | Two or more layers of cells Specific kind of stratified epithelium depends on the shape of cells in the apical layer Stratified squamous epithelium Stratified cuboidal epithelium Stratified columunar epithelium Transitional epithelium |
| Stratified Squamous Epithelium | Several layers of cells that are flat in the apical layer New cells are pushed up toward apical layer As cells move further from the blood supply they dehydrate, harden, and die Keratinized form contain the fibrous protein keratin Found in superficia |
| Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium | Fairly rare type of epithelium Apical layers are cuboidal Functions in protection |
| Stratified columnar epithelium | Also very uncommon Columnar cells in apical layer only Basal layers has shorten, irregular shaped cells Functions in protection and secretion |
| Transitional Epithelium | Found only in the urinary system Variable appearance In relaxed state, cells appear cuboidal Upon stretching, cells become flattened and appear squamous Ideal for hollow structure subjected to expansion |
| Glandular Epithelium: Endocrine Glands | Secretions, called hormones, diffuse directly into the bloodstream Function in maintaining homeostasis |
| Glandular Epithelium: Exocrine Glands | Secrete products into ducts that empty onto the surfaces of epithelium Skin surface or lumen of a hollow organ Secretions of the exocrine gland include mucus, sweat, oil, earwax, saliva, and digestive enzymes Examples of glands include sudoriferous (sw |
| Multicellular glands are categorized according to two criteria: | Ducts are branched or unbranched Shape of the secretory portion of the gland Simple gland duct does not branch Compound gland duct branches Tubular glands have tubular secretory parts Acinar glands have rounded secretory parts Tubuloacinar glands ha |
| Connective Tissue | Most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body |
| Connective Tissue & Numerous functions | Binds tissues together Supports and strengthen tissue Protects and insulates internal organs Compartmentalize and transport Energy reserves and immune responses |
| Extracellular matrix | is the material located between the cells Consist of protein fibers and ground substance |
| Connective tissue | is highly vascularSupplied with nerves Exception is cartilage and tendon. Both have little or no blood supply and no nerves |
| Fibroblasts | Secrete fibers and components of ground substance |
| Adipocytes (fat cells) | Store triglycerides (fat) |
| Mast cells | Produce histamine |
| White blood cells | Immune response Neutrophil and Eosinophils |
| Macrophages | Engulf bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis |
| Plasma cells | Secrete antibodies |
| Ground substance | Between cells and fibers Fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified Functions to support and bind cells, store water, and allow exchange between blood and cells Complex combination of proteins and polysaccharides |
| Connective tissue | is highly vascular |
| Supplied with nerves | Exception is cartilage and tendon. Both have little or no blood supply and no nerves |
| Fibroblasts | Secrete fibers and components of ground substance |
| Adipocytes (fat cells) | Store triglycerides (fat) |
| Mast cells | Produce histamine |
| White blood cells | Immune response Neutrophil and Eosinophils |
| Macrophages | Engulf bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis |
| Plasma cells | Secrete antibodies |
| Fibers | Collagen fibers Elastic fibers Reticular fibers |
| Embryonic connective tissue | Mesenchyme and mucous connective tissue |
| Mature connective tissue Loose connective tissue | Areolar, adipose, and reticular |
| Dense connective tissue | Dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic |
| Cartilage | Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage |
| Bone tissue | Bone tissue is a specialized form of connective tissue and is the main element of the skeletal tissues. It is composed of cells and an extracellular matrix in which fibers are embedded. Bone tissue is unlike other connective tissues in that the extracel |
| Liquid connective tissue | Blood and lymph |
| Mesenchyme | Gives rise to all other connective tissues |
| Mucous (Wharton’s Jelly) | Found in umbilical cord of the fetus |
| Loose Connective Tissue: Areolar Connective Tissue | Most widely distributed in the body Contains several types of cells and all three fibers |
| Loose Connective Tissue: Adipose Tissue | Contains adipocytes Good for insulation and energy reserves White (common) and brown adipose tissue |
| Loose Connective Tissue: Reticular Connective Tissue | Fine interlacing reticular fibers and cells Forms the stroma of liver, spleen, and lymph nodes |
| Loose Connective Tissue: Areolar Connective Tissue | Most widely distributed in the body Contains several types of cells and all three fibers |
| Loose Connective Tissue: Adipose Tissue | Contains adipocytes Good for insulation and energy reserves White (common) and brown adipose tissue |
| Dense connective tissue | Contains numerous, thicker, and denser fibers Packed closely with fewer cells than loose connective tissue |
| Dense regular connective tissue | Bundles of collagen fibers are regularly arranged in parallel patterns for strength Tendons and most ligaments |
| Types of Mature Connective Tissue: Dense Irregular Connective Tissue | Collagen fibers are usually irregularly arranged Found where pulling forces are exerted in many directions Dermis of skin and heart |
| Dense Connective Tissue: Elastic Connective Tissue | Contain branching elastic fibers Strong and can recoil to original shape after stretching Lung tissue and arteries |
| Cartilage | is a dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate |
| Chrondrocytes | Cartilage cells found in the spaces called lucunae |
| Pericondrium | Covering of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the cartilage Two layers: outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer No blood vessels or nerves, except pericondrium |
| Hyaline cartilage | Most abundant cartilage in the body Surrounding by perichondrium (some exceptions like articular cartilage) Provide flexibility and support. Reduces friction |
| Elastic Cartilage | Chrondrocytes are located within a threadlike network of elastic fibers Pericondrium is present Provides strength and elasticity |
| Repair and Growth of Cartilage | Cartilage grows slowly When injured or inflamed, repairs is slow due to its avascular nature. |
| Two patterns of cartilage growth: | Interstitial growth Growth from within the tissue Appositional growth Growth at the outer surface of the tissue |
| Bones are organs composed of several different connective tissues: | bone (osseous) tissue, periosteum, and endosteum. Compact or spongy Osteon or haversian system Spongy bone lacks osteons. They have columns called trabeculae |
| Blood tissue | Connective tissue with liquid extracellular matrix called blood plasma Lymph |
| Mucous membranes | Lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior Epithelial layer is important for the body’s defense against pathogens Connective tissue layer is areolar connective tissue and is called lamina propria |
| Serous membranes or serosa | Lines a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior. Also covers the organs that lie within the cavity Consist of areolar connective tissue covered by mesothelium (simple squamous epithelium) that secrete a serous fluid for lubrication |
| Membranes | are flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body |
| Epithelial membranes | are a combination of an epithelial layer and an underlying connective tissue layer Mucous, Serous, and Cutaneous membranes |
| Synovial membranes | Lines joints and contains connective tissue but not epithelium |
| Muscular Tissue | Consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myocytes Cells use ATP to generate force Several functions of muscle tissue |
| Classified into 3 types: | skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscular tissue |
| Skeletal Muscle Tissue | Attached to bones of the skeleton Have striations Voluntary movement or contractions by conscious control Vary in length (up to 40 cm) and are roughly cylindrical in shape |
| Cardiac muscle tissue | Have striations Involuntary movement or contraction is not consciously controlled |
| Intercalated disc | unique to cardiac muscle tissue |
| Smooth Muscle Tissue | Walls of hollow internal structures Blood vessels, airways of lungs, stomach, and intestines Nonstriated Usually involuntary control |
| Nervous Tissue | Consists of two principle types of cells Neurons or nerve cells Neuroglia |
| Excitable Cells | Neurons and muscle fibers Exhibit electrical excitability |
| Actions potentials propagate along a nerve or muscle plasma membrane to cause a response | Release of neurotransmitters Muscle contraction |
| When tissue damage is extensive both stroma and parenchymal cells are active in repair | Fibroblast divide rapidly New collagen fibers are manufactured New blood capillaries supply materials for healing |
| Fibroblast divide rapidly New collagen fibers are manufactured New blood capillaries supply materials for healing | All of these process create an actively growing connective tissue called granulation tissue |
| Aging and Tissues | Tissue heal faster in young adults Surgery of a fetus normally leaves no scars Young tissues have a better nutritional state, blood supply, and higher metabolic rate Extracellular components also changes with age Changes in the body’s use of glucose, |
| at are the functions of the Integumentary System? | Protection, Body Temperature Regulation, Cutaneous Sensations, Metabolic Functions, Blood Resevior, and Excretion. |
| What are the three levels of in the protection level of the Integumentary System? | Chemical, Physical, and Biological. |
| What does the Chemical Level do for the protection of the Integumentary System? | Low pH secretion (acid mantle) and defences retard bacterial activity. |
| What does the Physical Level do for the protection of the Integumentary System? | Keratin and glycolipids block most water, and water soluable substances. Limited penetration of the skin by lipid-soluable substances, plant oleoresins (poison ivy), organic solvents, salts or heavy metals, some drugs. |
| What does the Biological Barriers Level do for the protection of the Integumentary System? | Dendrite cells, macrophages, and DNA. |
| What is the Body Temperature Regulation for the Integumentary System? | ~500 ml |
| What is the Cutaneous Sensations for the Integumentary System? | Temperature, touch, and pain. |
| What is the Metabolic Function of the Integumentary System? | Synthesis of Vitamin D, precurser and collagenase. Chemical conversion of carcinogens and some hormones. |
| What is the Blood Resevior for the Integumentary System? | Up to 5% of the bodys blood volume. |
| What is Excrection for the Integumentary System? | Nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat. |
| What are the cells of the Epidermis? | Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Langerhans Cells, Merkel Cells |
| What do Keratinocytes do? | Produce the fibrous protein Keratin. |
| What do Melanocytes do? | Produce pigment melanin, 10 - 25% of the cells in the lower epidermis. |
| What do Langerhans Cells do? | Macrophages that help activate immune system. |
| What do Merkel Cells do? | Touch receptors. |
| What are the cells of the Dermis? | Fibroblasts, Macrophages, Mast Cells and occasionally White Blood Cells. |
| What are the layers of the Epidermis? | Stratum Corneum, Statrum Lucidum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Basal. |
| What is Stratum Basal? | Deepest epidermal layer that is firmly attached to the dermis, single row of stem cells, also called stratum germinativum; cells that undergo rapid division. Journey from basal layer to surface is 25 - 45 days. |
| What is Stratum Spinosum? | The prickly layer, cells contain a weblike system of intermediate prekeratin filaments attached to desosomes. Abundent melanin granules and dendritic cells. |
| What is Stratum Granulosum? | The Granular layer, thin. Three to five layers in which cells flatten. Keratohyaline and lamellated granuoles accumulate. |
| What is Stratum Lucidum? | Clear layer. In thick skin, is thin transparent band superficial to the stratum granulosum. A few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes. |
| What is Stratum Corneum? | Horny layer. Most superficial layer. 20 - 30 rows of dead keratinized membranous sacs. Three quarters of the epidermal thickness. |
| What are the functions of Stratum Corneum? | Protects from abrasion and penetration, is waterproof, barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults. |
| What are the layers of the Dermis? | The papilary and the reticular. |
| What is the Papillary layer of the Dermis? | Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels.Contains papillary loops, meisenners corpuscles, and free nerve endings. |
| What is the Reticular layer of the Dermis? | ~80% of the thickness of the dermis, collagen fibers provide strength and and resilliency, elastic fibers provides stretch-recoil properties. |
| What are the types of glands found in the Integumentary System? | Eccrine, Apocrine, Sebaceous. |
| What is an Eccrine Gland? | Merocrine, abundent on palms, soles, and forehead. Sweat 99% water, NaCl, Vitamin C, Antibodies, Dermcidin, and Metabolic Waste. Ducts connect to pores, function in thermoregulation. |
| What is a Apocrine Gland? | Confined to axillary, and anogenital areas. Ducts connect to hair follicles, functional from puberty onward, secret Sebum. |
| What are the specialized Apocrine Glands? | Ceruminous Glands in the external ear canal that secrete cerumen, and mammary glands. |
| What are Sebaceous Glands? | Widely distributed, most develop from hair follicle, become active at puberty, secret sebum. |
| What does Sebum do? | Oily holocrine secretion, bacterialcidal, softens hair and skin. |
| What are the pigments that attribute to the color of the skin? | Melanin, Carotene, and Hemoglobin. |
| What does Melanin do? | Yellow to redish-brown to black. Produced in melanocytes, migrates to keratinocytes where it forms pigment sheilds for nuclei. Freckles and pigmented moles. |
| What are freckles and moles? | Local accumulations of melanin. |
| What does Carotene do? | Yellow to orange color, most obvious in the palms of the soles. |
| What does Hemoglobin do? | Responsible for the pinkish hue of the skin. |
| What is Alopecia? | Hair thinning in both sexes after age 40. |
| What is Frank Baldness? | Genetically determined and sex influenced condition, male pattern baldness is caused by follicular responses to DHT. |
| What is a Pacinian Corpuscle? | They are nerve endings in the skin, responsible for sensitivity to deep pressure touch and high frequency vibration. |
| What is a Meissners Corpuscle? | They are a type of nerve endings in the skin that are responsible for sensitivity to light touch. In particular, they have highest sensitivity (lowest threshold) when sensing vibrations lower than 50 Hertz. They are rapidly adaptive receptors. |
| What are the three types of Skin Cancer? | Melanoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Basal Cell Carcinoma. |
| What is Basal Cell Carcinoma? | least malignant, most common. Stratum basal cells proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis. Cured by surgical excision 99% of the time. |
| What is Squamous Cell Carcinoma? | Second most common. Involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum. Most common on scalp, ears, lower lip, and hands. Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically. |
| What is Melanoma? | Most dangerous. Involves melanocytes, highly metastic and resistant to chemotherapy, treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy. |
| What are the Characteristics of Melanoma? | Asymmetry; the two sides of the pigmented area do not match. Border exhibits indentations. Color is black, brown, tan, and sometimes red or blue. Diameter is large than 6mm (size of a pencil eraser). |
| What aspects can cause a Burn? | Heat, electricity, radiation, certain chemicals. |
| What is a burn? | Tissue damage, denatured protein, cell death. |
| What the immediate threat to a burn? | Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, leading to renal shutdown or circulatory shock. |
| What is a First Degree Burn? | Epidermal damage only, localized redness, edema (swelling), and pain. |
| What is a Second Degree Burn? | Epidermal and upper dermal damage. Blisters appear. |
| What is a Third Degree Burn? | Entire thickness of skin damaged. Gray-white, cherry red, or black. No initial edema or pain (nerve endings destroyed). Skin grafting usually necessary. |
| What concludes the severity of burns being critical? | >25% of the body has second-degree burns, >10% of the body has third degree burns. Face, hands or feet bear third degree burns. |
| What aspects can cause a Burn? | Heat, electricity, radiation, certain chemicals. |
| What are Sebaceous Glands? | Widely distributed, most develop from hair follicle, become active at puberty, secret sebum. |
| What are the cells of the Epidermis? | Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Langerhans Cells, Merkel Cells. |
| What is the Blood Resevior for the Integumentary System? | Up to 5% of the bodys blood volume. |
| What are the functions of Stratum Corneum? | Protects from abrasion and penetration, is waterproof, barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults. |
| What is Stratum Granulosum? | The Granular layer, thin. Three to five layers in which cells flatten. Keratohyaline and lamellated granuoles accumulate. |
| What is an Eccrine Gland? | Merocrine, abundent on palms, soles, and forehead. Sweat 99% water, NaCl, Vitamin C, Antibodies, Dermcidin, and Metabolic Waste. Ducts connect to pores, function in thermoregulation. |
| Amphiarthrosis | A slightly moveable joint |
| Diaphysis | The shaft of a long bone |
| Diarthrosis | A freely moveable joint |
| Endochrondal ossification | Method of bone formation in which the cartilage is replaced by bone |
| Epiphyseal plate | The cartilaginous plate between the epiphysis and diaphysis responsible for lengthwise growth |
| Epiphysis | The end of a long bone |
| Intramembranous ossification | method of bone formation |
| Osteoblast | Bone forming cell |
| Osteoclast | Cell that destroys or resorbs bone tissue |
| Osteocyte | Mature bone cell |
| Osteon Structural unit of a bone: | haversian system |
| Synarthrosis | An immovable joint |
| acetabul- | little cup |
| ankyl | stiff, crooked |
| appendicul- | little attachment |
| artic- | joint |
| arthr- | joint |
| -blast | to form, sprout |
| burs- | pouch |
| carp- | wrist |
| -clast- | to break |
| corac- | beak |
| cost- | rib |
| -fic- | make |
| ili- | ilium |
| kyph- | hump |
| myel- | spinal cord, bone marrow |
| odont- | tooth |
| -oid | like resembling |
| oste-, oss- | bone |
| -poie- | making |
| sacr- | sacrum |
| sphen- | wedge |
| spondyl- | vertebrae |
| syn- | together |
| -tion | act or process of |
| first-class lever | The axis is between the force and the resistance |
| second- class lever | The resistance is between the axis and the force |
| third- class lever | The force is between the axis and the resistance |
| flexion | decreasing the angle of a joint |
| extension | Increasing the angle of a joint |
| adduction | movement toward the midline |
| abduction | movement away from the midline |
| rotation | movement around a central axis |
| medial rotation aka internal rotation | movement around the central axis toward the midline |
| lateral rotation aka external | movement around the central axis away from the midline |
| pronation - | forearm palms facing down or back |
| pronation- | foot forefoot is inverted, rear foot is everted |
| supination- | forearm palms facing up or forward |
| supination- foot | forefoot is everted, rear foot is inverted |
| inversion | sole of the foot moves toward the midline |
| eversion | sole of the foot moves away from the midline |
| protraction | movement of the scapula away from the midline |
| retraction | movement of the scapula toward the midline |
| elevation | scapula moving up |
| depression | scapula moving down |
| upward rotation | movement of the scapula so that the glenoid fossa points up |
| downward rotation | movement of the scapula so that the glenoid fossa faces down |
| radial deviation | deviating the hand toward the thumb side |
| ulna deviation | deviating the hand toward the pinky |
| dorsiflexion | heels down pulling the top of foot toward the tibia |
| plantar flexion | toes down, heel up |
| circumduction | circular movement at a ball and socket joint that created a cone shape: |
| Osteology | the study of the bones and the disorders and diseases of the skeletal system |
| Skeletal System Framework | of bones, cartilages, along with ligaments & tendons |
| Bone is composed of what tissues? | Osseous, Cartilage, Dense Connective, Adipose, Nervous & Epithelium |
| 6 main functions of skeletal system | support, protection, movement, stores lipids in yellow marrow, stores calcium & minerals, hematopoiesis (formation of blood cells) |
| Red Bone Marrow produces what? | Red blood cells, White blood cells, & Platelets |
| Hemopoiesis | the process of making red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in the red bone marrow |
| Long Bone | Longer than they are wide, made mostly of compact bone |
| Parts of long bone | diaphysis, epiphyses, metaphyses, articular cartilage, periosteum, medullary cavity, endosteum |
| Difference between adult and growing long bone is? | Growing long bone the metaphyses contains a layer of hyaline cartilage called the epiphyseal plate. Adult long bone |
| Diaphysis | Shaft, or mid-portion, of a long bone |
| Epiphyses | the proximal and distal ends of the bone |
| Metaphyses | Area between epiphysis and diaphysis where the epiphyseal line(adult bone) and plate(growing bone) are found |
| The osseous tissue's extracellular matrix is made up of what? | 25% Water, 25% Collagen Fibers, 50% Crystallized mineral salts |
| Calcification | the process where mineral salts are deposited in the collagen fiber framework, hardening the bone matrix |
| Hydroxyapatite | calcium phosphate + cacium hyroxide. Contributes to hardness of the matrix |
| Types of cells in bone tissue | osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts |
| Osteogenic cells | unspeciallized stem cell derived from mesenchyme that has mitotic potential and the ability to differentiate into an osteoblast. |
| Osteoblasts | immature, bone-forming cells which secrete new bone matrix |
| Osteocytes | Mature bone cells located within lacunae. Main cells in bone tissue and maintain its daily metabolism, such as the exchange of nutrients and wastes with the blood. Do not undergo cell division |
| Osteoclasts | Huge bone destroying cells in bones, break down bone matrix and release calcium ions into the blood |
| Resorption | process of breakdown of bone tissue; necessary for bone remodeling/repair that occurrs during growth or after injury; bone tissue also is resorbed when its stored minerals are needed by the body |
| Compact Bone Tissue | contains few spaces and is the strongest form of bone tissue; it is found beneath the periosteum of all bones and makes up the bulk of the diaphyses of long bones; it provides protection and support and resists stresses produced by weight and movement |
| Volkmann's canals | Canals which run at right angles to long axis, connecting vascular and nerve supply of the periosteum to the Haversian canals and medullary cavity. (Perforating Canals) |
| Haversian Canals | run lengthwise in the bone, contain blood vessels, nerves and lymph vessels(Central Canals) |
| Concentric Lamellae | layers of matrix concentrically arranged around a central canal |
| Lacunae | small spaces between the lamellae which contain osteocytes |
| Canaliculi | small canals radiating in all directions from launae, allowing for communication between osteocytes |
| Haversian Systems | aka osteons |
| series of cocentric rings | called lamellae that have a central canal caontaining blood & lymph vessels and nerves. Aligned in same direction along lines of stress |
| Interstitial lamellae | the areas between osteons that are fragments of older osteons that have been partially destroyed during bone rebuilding or growth |
| Circumfrential lamellae | Lamellae that encircle the bone just under periosteum or encircle the medullary cavity |
| Spongy Bone Tissue | this consists of an irregular latticework of thin plates of bone called trabeculae, with spaces in-between filled with red bone marrow. Does NOT contain osteons |
| Trabeculae | the irregular latticework of thin bony plates in spongy bone tissue |
| Ossification | Process of bone formation (Osteogenisis) |
| 4 principal situations where ossification occurs | Initial bone formation (embryo & fetus) |
| Bone growth | (childhood & adolescence) |
| Remodeling of old bone to produce new | (throughout life) |
| Repair of Fractures | (throughout life) |
| 2 methods of embryonic or fetal bone formation | Intramembranous Ossification (directly within messenchyme) |
| Endochondral Ossification | (Form within hyaline cartilage) |
| Intramembranous Ossification | the process of bone formation in the flat bones of the skull and mandible, where bone forms directly within mesenchyme arranged in sheetlike layers that resemble membranes |
| Endochondral Ossification | the most common bone formation process, which involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage (developed by mesenchyme) with bone |
| Process of Intramembranous | Ossification Development of Ossification Centre, Calcification, Formation of Trabeculae & Development of Periosteum |
| Process of Endochondral | Ossification Development of cartilage model, Growth of cartilage model, Primary Ossification center development, Medullary cavity development, Secondary ossification centre development, Articular cartilage & Epiphyseal |
| Epiphyseal | Plate zones Zone of resting cartilage |
| Zone of proliferating | cartilage |
| Zone of hypertrophic | cartilage |
| Zone of calcified | cartilage |
| Appositional Growth | increases thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces |
| Bone resorption process | of bone demineralization or the breaking down of bone into mineral |
| Bone deposition | the addition of minerals and collagen fibers to bone by osteoblasts |
| Factors affecting bone growth | minerals, vitamins and hormones |
| Types of bone fractures | Open(compound), Closed(simple), Comminuted, Greenstick, Impacted, Pott's, Colle's, & Stress |
| Open Fracture | compound fracture; broken bone that punctures skin |
| Closed Fracture | simple fracture in which the broken bone doesn't pierce the skin |
| Comminuted Fracture | the bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces, and smaller bone fragments lie between the two main fragments. This is the most difficult fracture to treat. |
| Greenstick Fracture | partial fracture - will bend on one side and break on the other (usually in children) |
| Impacted Fracture | one end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into the interior of the other |
| Pott's Fracture fracture | to the distal end of fibula, with injury of the tibial articulation |
| Colle's Fracture | Distal end of radius is broken by falling onto an outstreched hand. |
| Stress Fracture microscopic | fissures from repeated strenuous activites |
| Steps of Bone Repair | Fracture Hematoma, Cartilage Callus, Bony Callus, Bone Remodeling |
| Osteoporosis | condition of decreased bone density and increased porosity, causing bones to become brittle and liable to fracture |
| Rickets & Osteomalacia | (rickets |
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