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BIOL 1142 - Quiz 3
blood vessels, blood pressure, blood, immune system, breathing
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| blood flow to the brain vs. blood flow to other organs | blood flow to the brain never changes, blood flow to other organs is variable |
| Amount of blood flow to different organs at rest | brain - 14%, heart - 4%, liver/digestive tract - 27%, kidneys - 20%, skeletal muscle - 21%, skin - 5%, bone and other tissues - 9% |
| diversion of blood | blood can be diverted away from organs that receive more than they need by changes in arterial diameter |
| blood flow and pressure gradients | flows from high to low, flow of blood is directly proportional to the pressure gradient inversely proportional to vascular resistance |
| blood pressure | the force the blood exerts on vessel walls, measured in mmHg; highest in the arteries, lowest in the veins; fluctuates in relation to ventriculuar systole (systolic pressure) and ventricular diastole (diastolic pressure) |
| things that influence flow | 1. pressure difference 2. length of the tube (n/a) 3. viscosity of fluid (n/a) 4. diameter of the tube |
| resistance and blood flow | the diameter of the vessels has an inverse relationship with flow. larger diameter, less resistance. resistance can be calculated by taing the inverse of the radius to the 4th power. Flow = 1/R. |
| characteristics of blood vessels | all have endothelium lining (continuous with the lining of the heart); arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins |
| functions of arteries | rapid transit passageways, pressure reservoir (stretch and recoil to maintain pressure during blood volume changes due to systole and diastole |
| bimodal flow | on/off; heart has bimodal flow |
| continuous flow | capillaries |
| ascultation | listening to the sounds of the body |
| direct measure of blood pressure | pressure sensor inserted directly into an artery |
| indirect measure of blood pressure | sphygmomanonmetry - using a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer placed on the brachial artery |
| Korotkoff sounds | first = systolic pressure, last = diastolic pressure |
| ascultation and blood pressure | wide vessels - no sound; totally constricted - no sound; constricted - sound from wall vibrations |
| normal blood pressure | 120/80 |
| hypertension | high blood pressure, 140/90 at rest |
| pulse | pressure wave felt in an artery; normal pulse is 70 BPM |
| pulse pressure | systolic pressure - diastolic pressure; normal is 40 (120-80) |
| mean arterial pressure | diastolic pressure - 1/3 pulse pressure; average is 93 (spend more time at lower pressure); baroreceptors respond to mean arterial pressure |
| 4 things that influence mean arterial pressure | 1. blood volume 2. cardiac output 3. peripheral resistance 4. blood distribution |
| blood volume increases and blood pressure | fast response - decreased heart rate, vasodilation slow response - kidneys flush excess water, increase urine output |
| blood volume decreases and blood pressure | only way to restore volume is through fluids via drinking or IV; cardiovascular system compensates by increasing heart rate, vasoconstruction; decrease urine output to prevent additional loss |
| hypotension | low blood pressure |
| vasovagal syncope | fainting; not enough blood to the brain |
| 4 types of shock | 1. cardiogenic 2. hypovolemic 3. septic 4. anaphylactic |
| cardiogenic shock | heart problem results in low or absent blood pressure |
| hypovolemic shock | bleeding out; significant loss of blood volume |
| septic shock | systemwide infection, usually bacterial. Toxins cause vasodilation and low BP |
| anaphylactic shock | allergic reaction, systemic response, release of histamine results in inflammation whcih causes vasodilation and low BP combined with airway constriction |
| arteriole function | distribute cardiac output to appropriate organs, regulate arterial BP |
| arterioles and mean arterial pressure | arterioles have a large MAP decrease - 98 mmHG to 37 mmHg (increased resistance due to smaller diameter of vessels) |
| vasoconstriction | constriction of blood vessels, decrease in diameter |
| vasodilation | dilation of blood vessels, increase in diameter |
| vascular tone | normal state of partial constriction; smooth muscle is responsible for this because of Ca++ leak channels |
| how vasodilation and vasoconstriction are controlled | local control or extrinsic; smooth muscle responds to chemical, mechanical and neural signals |
| local control of arteriole resistance | often overrides extrinsic control, happens due to chemical or mechanical signals that change due to metabolic activity |
| extrinsic control of arteriole resistance | sympathetic nervous system, norepinephrine and alpha1 receptors cause vasoconstriction; other hormonal controls - epinephrine from adrenal gland acts on beta2 receptors to cause bronchodilation; angiotensin II and vasopressin are powerful vasoconstrictors |
| capillaries | smallest blood vessels, responsible for exchange of material via diffusion and bulk flow; thin walls, narrow lumen, extensive branches, high surface area, slow flow |
| histamine | neurotransmitter that triggers inflammatory response |
| chemical signals that act as local controls | oxygen, carbon dioxide, acid, potassium levels |
| mechanical signals that act as local controls | temperature, shear stress, stretch |
| hormones and extrinsic control | norepinephrine, epinephrine, angiotensin II, vasopressin |
| sympathetic nervous system and extrinsic control | causes vasoconstriction |
| bulk flow | flow of particles that can be dissolved in water through capillary beds |
| permeability of capillaries | 3 types: continuous (not very permeable), fenestrated (medium permability, intestines, kidneys), sinusoidal (very permeable, liver, spleen, bone marrow) |
| flow rate in capillaries | equal to cardiac output in all segments; increased surface area, increased diffusion |
| flow velocity in capillaries | inversely proportional to cross-sectional area; increased surface area, decreased blood flow |
| anatomy of capillaries | single layer of endothelial cells and a basement membrane; have precapillary sphincters that "close" capillaries |
| capillary hydrostatic pressure | 37 mmHg at arteriole end of capillary bed, 17 mmHg at venule end of capillary bed |
| forces that affect bulk flow | blood pressure, capillary hydrostatic pressure (outward), plasma colloid osmotic pressure (inward), interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (inward, negligible), interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure (outward, negligible) |
| net exchange and bulk flow | outward forces - inward forces arterial end = 11 mmHg, venuous end = 9 mmHg, 3L fluid net loss (about 55% of blood volume, returned via lymphatic system) |
| lymphatic system | capillaries -> vessels -> trunks (5) -> ducts (2) return fluid lost from capillaries to cardiovascular system |
| amount of blood lost per day | approximately 3 L |
| edema | accumulation of insterstitial fluid |
| 4 causes of edema | 1. reduced concentration of plasma proteins 2. increased permeability of capillaries 3. increased venous pressure 4. blockage of lymph |
| veins | low resistance passageway and blood reservoir; highly distensible wiht little elastic recoil; closer to the surface than arteries |
| venous return | happens because of pressure gradients (venous pressure is 17 mmHg, 4-6 mmHg in the heart; SNS activity increases flow due to vasoconstriction, skeletal muscle pump and respiratory pump overcome gravity, cardiac suction |
| skeletal muscle pump | skeletal muscles compress veins and help push blood toward the heart |
| respiratory pump | change in thoracic cavity pressure helps blood return to the heart |
| venous valves | prevent blood from flowing backwards due to gravity |
| cadiac suction | when the heart relaxes, the expansion in volume creates enough suction to pull blood into the heart |
| baroreceptor reflex | stretch sensitive neurons in the aortic arch and carotid sinus respond to arterial blood pressure and modulate the heart rate to return to normal pressure; only active at rest |
| blood | formed elements and plasma, transport of nutrients and other materials to various parts of the body |
| erythrocyte | red blood cell |
| leukocyte | white blood cell |
| platelet | fragments of blood cells; help with clotting, no nuclei but some organelles, 10 day life span |
| plasma | non formed elements in the blood |
| plasma proteins | 7% of plasma, undissolved, produce colloid osmotic gradient between blood and interstitial fluid, buffer changes in pH |
| albumin | most abundant plasma protein, nonspecific transport, carries bilirubin |
| globulins | transport specific substances, clotting factors, contain antibodies (immunoglobulins) |
| fibrinogen | involved in formation of fibrin, an important clotting factor |
| hemoglobin | contains 4 globins, 4 hemes; carries oxygen (primary), carbon dioxide, hydrogen and carbon monoxide |
| bicarbonate | blood buffer |
| heme compound | contains iron |
| amount of oxygen one red blood cell can transport | a billion molecules |
| erhythropoetin (EPO) | hormone that stimulates production of red blood cells, secreted by the kidneys, stimulated by low oxygen levels in the blood |
| erythropoeisis | production of red blood cells; happens in the red bone marrow (flat bones in adults) |
| removal of erythrocytes | spleen and liver, life span of an erythrocyte is about 120 days |
| anemia | below normal oxygen carrying capacity |
| polycythemia | elevated hematocrit, too many red blood cells |
| hematocrit | percentage of formed elements (red blood cells) in the blood; 45% for males, 43% for females |
| blood types | A, B, AB and O Rh factor gives + and - |
| transfusion reactions | happens when an incompatible blood type is given to a person - some types contain antibodies that will attack antigens found in incompatible blood types; mismatched blood will "clump" and may result in stroke, heart attack, hemolysis, renal failure |
| blood antigens and antibodies | A contains A antigens and B antibodies B contains B antigens and A antibodies AB contains A and B antigens, no antibodies O contains no antigens, A and B antibodies |
| Rh factor | "antigen D" found on erythrocytes, if present, + blood. If not, - blood. Rh - people get D antibodies after first exposure, Rhogam can be used to prevent reaction during pregnancy |
| megakaryocyte | form platelets |
| hemostasis | maintaining stable vasculature |
| platelet plug | initial clotting, temporary; platelets release serotonin and thromboxane A2 which help platelets bind to exposed collagen fibers; positive feedback loop interrupted by signals from surrounding endothelial cells |
| coagulation | clotting, long term; conversion of platelet plug into stable clott |
| prothrombin | produces thrombin |
| thrombin | activates fibrinogen; intrinsic (from blood) and extrinsic (from surrounding connective tissue) |
| fibrinogen | plasma protein, produces fibrin |
| fibrin | fibers that form clots |
| types of receptors in capillaries | alpha1 and beta2 - highly sensitive to local action, have opposite actions on the blood vessel |
| metaarteriole | direct connection from an arteriole to a venule, no capillary bed |
| lymph trunks | 2 iliac (left and right), 1 intestinal, 2 bronchomediastinal (left and right) |
| lymph ducts | thoracic duct (3/4 drainage from lower body), right lymph duct (1/4 drainage from upper body) |
| causes of anemia | 1. decreased erythropoiesis 2. loss of erythrocytes 3. decreased hemoglobin |
| pernicious anemia | lack of vitamin B12, genetic disorder |
| aplastic anemia | reduction in erythropoeisis due to toxin or chemical |
| renal anemia | side effect of kidney problem, effects EPO production |
| hemorrhagic anemia | loss of erythrocytes due to severe bleeding |
| hemolytic anemia | loss of red blood cells due to rupture (often caused by sickle cell anemia or parasite infection) |
| nutritional anemia | not enough iron in the blood |
| 3 steps of hemostasis | 1. vascular spasm 2. temporary platelet plug 3. coagulation |
| immune system functions | protection from pathogens, removal of dead or damaged cells, recognition and removal of abnormal cells |
| apoptosis | internal cell death pathway, cell self-destruction |
| mutations | result in apoptosis or increased cell division, possible loss of attachment to proper environment |
| 3 major immune system pathologies | 1. incorrect response (autoimmune disease) 2. overactive response (allergies) 3. lack of response (immunodeficiency due to disease or drugs) |
| immune response | 1. detection/identification 2. communication - recruitment, coordination 3. destruction |
| innate immunity | inborn, non-specific, inflammatory response |
| acquired immunity | gained after exposure to pathogens, through breastmilk, vaccines |
| phagocyte | cells that eat other cells; includes neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes |
| opsonization | "make tasty" - plasma proteins coat pathogens and make them desirable to phagocytic cells |
| inflammatory response | heat, swelling, redness, pain; attracts immune cells, creates physical barrier, promotes tissue repair post infection |
| humor | blood, fluid |
| lymphocytes | involved in humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity |
| cell-mediated immunity | defense against own cells that are infected or mutated |
| humoral immunity | involved with antibodies that target specific antigens |
| B-lymphocytes | produce antibodies, humoral immunity |
| T-lymphocytes | involved with cell-mediated immunity |
| MAST cells | related to basophils, release paracrines that activate inflammatory response |
| antibody functions | opsonization, antigen clumping, toxin inactivation, enhance inflammation, activate immune cells |
| 5 general classes of antibodies | IgG - secondary exposure, memory cells IgM - primary exposure IgE - inflammatory response IgA - external secretions IgD - attached to B-cells |
| 3 major types of T-cells | helper T cells (coordinate immune response) cytotoxic T cells (directly target infected cells) suppressor T cells (turn off immune response) |
| antigen presentation cell (APC) | macrophage that is showing an antigen that it just destroyed, communicate with helper T cells to initiate immune response |
| major histacompatibility complex (MHC) | receptors that are able to associate with lysosomes that break things down, recycle; certain cells that show what they just "ate" so that other cells can recognize it |
| immune response to bacteria | activation of the complement system (inflammation), phagocytic activity, acquired immune responses, repair |
| immune response to viruses | opsonization by antibodies, macrophages engage as antigen-presenting-cells, helper T cells are activated, cytotoxic T cells are activated |
| allergies | immediate hypersensitivity reactions; first exposure - APC -> helper T cell -> B-cell -> antibody production; subsequent exposure - allergen binds to IgE, immediate release of histamine, cytokines, etc. |
| respiratory system functions | . |
| respiratory pump | . |
| 4 processes of external respiration | . |
| why lungs stick to the ribs | / |
| intra-alveolar pressure | . |
| intrapleural pressure | . |
| intrapleural fluid adhesion | . |
| transmural pressure | . |
| Boyle's Law | . |
| partial pressures of common gases | . |
| tidal volume | . |
| inspiratory reserve volume | . |
| expiratory reserve volume | . |
| vital capacity | . |
| residual volume | . |
| total lung capacity | . |
| air pressure at sea level | 760 mmHg |
| muscles used during inspiration | . |
| muscles used during expiration | . |
| compliance | . |
| elasticity | . |
| airway resistance | . |
| bronchodilation | . |
| bronchoconstriction | . |
| anatomic dead space | . |
| gas pressure and alveoli | . |
| hyperventilation | . |
| hypoventilation | . |
| vasodilation | . |
| vasoconstriction | . |
| things that affect gas diffusion | . |
| partial pressure | . |
| partial pressures of O2 and CO2 in the alveoli | . |
| partial pressures of O2 and CO2 in the cells | . |
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pinklrt98
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