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APHY 201 Exam 2b
Ch. 8 The Central Nervous System
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what distinct swellings on the neural tube correspond to what structures of the brain? | prosen -> forebrain -> telen (cerebral hemispheres and lateral ventricles) and dien; mesen -> midbrain, cerebral aqueduct; rhomben -> hindbrain -> meten (pons, cerebellum, upper fourth ventricle) and myelen (medulla oblongata, lower fourth ventricle) |
| choroid plexuses consist of what type of epithelium in close association with blood capillaries? | simple cuboidal to columnar epithelium |
| true or false, the brain receives about 15% of the total blood flow to the body per minute | true, it's hawkin' the blood flow :) |
| what is the term for gyri and sulci together? | convolutions |
| where is the gray and white matter for the outer cerebrum and where are they for the spinal cord? | gray outer and white inner for cerebraum, gray inner and white outer for spinal cord |
| each hemisphere is divided by deep sulci (fissures) of the brain into what 5 lobes? | PITFO: parietal insula temporal frontal occipital |
| which sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes? | central sulcus |
| (starred) which lobe of the brain is responsible for encoding of memory and integration of sensory info with visceral responses, receiving olfactory, gustatory, auditory, and pain information | insula |
| which lobe is responsible for somatesthetic interpretation (cutaneous and muscular sensations), as well as understanding speech? | parietal |
| which lobe is responsible for voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles, personality, and higher intellectual processes? | frontal |
| which brain scanning technique uses radioactively labeled glucose injected into the blood? | position emission tomography (PET) scan |
| what is the difference between MRI and fMRI? | MRI looks at protons, fMRI looks at blood flow (e.g. NT glutamate release increases vasodilation--results in BOLD response (blood oxygenation level dependent contrast) |
| which brain scanning technique uses SQUIDs sensors based on magnetic fields produced by postsynaptic currents? | MEG (magnetoencephalogram) |
| what brain scanning technique detects synaptic potentials and results in four common patterns? | EEG (electroencephalogram) sees alpha, beta, theta and delta waves |
| (bolded) which brain scanning technique measures cerebral blood flow, measured using emitters of single photons, such as technetium? | SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) |
| what are the NTs involved in sleep? | wakefulness: histamine; sleep: adenosine, GABA; serotonin induces REM sleep and stimulates non-REM sleep |
| the 2 recognized categories of sleep are REM and nonREM (resting). which waves patterns are seen in which? | REM = theta waves, non-REM characterized by delta waves |
| the limbic system is involved in which category of sleep? | REM sleep, which also benefits consolidation of implicit memory (nondeclarative) |
| which category of sleep is associated with repair of metabolic damage and allowing of neuroplasticity mechanisms to store memories? | non-REM sleep, which also benefits consolidation of spatial and declarative memories (explicit--episodic and semantic) (recognize for multiple choice) |
| the corpus striatum consists of what? | lentiform nucleus (putamen and globus pallidus), as well as the caudate nucleus |
| how is Parkinson's disease caused? | degeneration of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra to the corpus striatum |
| which structures are involved in the motor circuit? | motor regions of the frontal lobe, putamen, globus pallidus, thalamus, motor cortex of the cerebrum |
| what is the difference between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias functionally? | Broca's involves motor speech impairment; Wernicke's involves rapid speech with no meaning--comprehension of language is destroyed, spoken and written |
| what is the speech pathway from Wernicke's area to Broca's area? | it's sent from W's to B's along the arcuate fasciculus; Broca's area sends info then to the motor cortex to move the appropriate muscles |
| what does damage at the angular gyrus produce? | aphasias involved in reading and writing |
| what areas are involved in the limbic system? | cingulate gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus, septal nuclei, anterior insula, hypothalamus, thalamus } once called rhinencephalon |
| how does the Papez circuit go? | hippocampus takes fornix path to mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, which sends neurons to the thalamus; the thalamus sends neurons to the cingulate gyrus, which sends neurons to the hippocampus (completing the circuit) |
| amnesia/memory is associated with what areas of the brain? | temporal lobe, hippocampus, caudate nucleus, dorsomedial thalamus |
| which area of the brain is important for acquiring new information and consolidation of STM to LTM? | hippocampus |
| in which 3 areas of the brain does memory consolidation happen? | medial temporal lobe, hippocampus, and amygdala |
| what are 7 characteristics of Alzheimer's? | loss of cholinergic fibers, ECM amyloid beta senile plaque proteins, ICM tau proteins- neurofibrillary tangles, loss of synapses & spines, reduced LTP, excitotoxicity, mitochondrial release of ROS causing oxidative stress, apoptosis |
| which gene is associated with an increased chance of developing Alzheimer's? | APOe4 |
| what are 3 current treatments of Alzheimer's? | AChE inhibitors to stimulate cholinergic neurons that remain, antagonists of glutamate to fight excitotoxicity, drugs for depression |
| which type of memory involves a recurrent aka reverberating circuit where neurons synapse on each other in a circle & interruption of circuit destroys the memory? | short-term memory |
| LTP in the hippocampus is a good example of synaptic plasticity. glutamate from presynaptic neuron releases glutamate -> binds to AMPA receptor allowing Na+, which activates NMDA receptor (had been blocked by an Mg2+) which allows Ca2+ and Na+ in, | --> Ca2+ binds to calmodulin protein --> calmodulin activates CaMKII enzyme --> more AMPA receptors fuse. this alone strengthens the synapse, becoming more sensitive to glutamate release (EPSP) |
| except the DCML, if a tract (white matter) is given the prefix spino- with a suffix that indicates the brain region it synapses on, is it ascending or descending? | ascending |
| if a tract is given the suffix -spinal and the prefix indicates the brain region they come from, is it ascending or descending? | decsending |
| which tracts--ascending or descending--convey sensory information from receptors in the skin, muscles, joints and organs? | ascending (afferent) |
| where do ascending tracts decussate? (2 options) | in the spinal cord or in the medulla |
| what is the term for the nerves being organized in regions opposite whence they came from? | contralateral |
| which tract of the spinal cord conducts pain and temperature to the cerebral cortex? | anterolateral spinothalamic tract (ascending) |
| (Simersong hint) which tract of the spinal cord conducts sensory impulses from skin, muscles, tendons, and joints, which are interpreted as sensations of cutaneous touch and pressure (and vibration), and body position (proprioception)? | the DCML: the (ascending) dorsal column-medial lemniscus/lemniscal tract, which receives LMN tracts at the nucleus gracilis (T7-12) (lower thigh muscle) and nucleus cuneatus of medulla (T1-6) (!) |
| which tract of the spinal cord conducts sensory impulses from one side of body to same side of cerebellum, necessary for coordinated muscular contractions? | posterior spinocerebellar (ascending) |
| which tract of the spinal cord conducts sensory impulses from BOTH sides of the body to the cerebellum, necessary for coodinated musclular contractions? | anterior spinocerebellar |
| between ascending and descending pathways, which has 3 neurons and which has 2? | there are 3 neurons in most ascending pathways, and 2 in descending |
| what are some details one should know about ascending tract pathways? | 1st-order cell body sits in the dorsal root ganglion (or cranial nerve ganglia. it is unipolar w 2 axons; the 2nd-order cell body is multipolar & resides in spinal cord's dorsal horn or brainstem nuclei; 3rd-order cell body is multipolar and in thalamus |
| what are the 2 major groups of descending tracts (motor pathways)? | corticospinal aka pyramidal, and extrapyramidal tracts |
| which type of tract descends directly without synaptic interruption from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord, ultimately synapsing with LMNs in its ventral horn? | corticospinal aka pyramidal (pyramidal run through the pyramids of the medulla oblongata) |
| where are the cell bodies of upper motor neurons located? | in the precentral gyrus as well as the superior frontal gyrus |
| 80-90% of pyramidal/descending tracts cross in the medulla pyramids and descend as lateral corticospinal tracts. what are those called that do NOT cross in the medulla? | anterior corticospinal tracts, which cross in the spinal cord at the level that the nerves leave the cord |
| which tracts start in the brain and end in the spinal cord? | descending motor tracts |
| which are the 2 pyramidal tracts I should know from the slides, and where do they originate? | lateral corticospinal and anterior corticospinal, both originate in the cerebral cortex at the precentral gyrus |
| what are the 4 extrapyramidal tracts I should know from the slides, and where do they originate? | rubrospinal from the red nucleus (midbrain), tectospinal from superior colliculus (midbrain), vestibulospinal from the vestibular nuclei (medulla oblongata), reticulospinal (the major ones to know!) from the reticular formation (medulla and pons) |
| (Simersong hint) what is the vestibulospinal tract for? (unconscious) | regulates balance, muscle tone, and upright posture by activating extensor (anti-gravity) muscles in response to head position changes detected by the inner ear |
| (Simersong hint) what is the tectospinal tract for? (unconscious) | coordinates reflexive head, neck, and eye turning movements toward sudden, unexpected visual or auditory stimuli (such as flinching toward a loud flash or bang) |
| what is the rubrospinal tract for? (unconscious) | recreates basic, involuntary flexion movements of the upper limbs (arms) to assist with crawling and upper-body reaching maneuvers |
| what is the reticulospinal tract for? (unconscious) | directs automatic posture stabilization, walking rhythm generation, and crude muscle tone adjustments across the trunk and limbs during voluntary movements |
| what is the lateral corticospinal tract for? | this conscious voluntary movement tract is for fine, precise, skilled voluntary movements of the distal limbs (typing, writing, or buttoning a shirt) |
| what is the anterior corticospinal tract for? | voluntary movements and structural alignment of the proximal muscles, axial skeleton, and trunk (maintaining posture while lifting weights or bending forward) |
| what is the reflex in <2-year-olds that occurs when the sole of the foot is stimulated? | Babinski reflex |
| what are the tracts that don't go through pyramids of the medulla oblongata? | extrapyramidal tracts |
| extrapyramidal tracts originate in the brain stem, not being hooked up to the precentral gyrus, and are controlled by motor circuits of what 3 structures? | basal nuclei - corpus striatum (caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens, globus pallidus), substantia nigra, as well as the thalamus |
| are cranial nerves part of the peripheral nervous system? | yes, though they arise directly from nuclei in the brain, they are part of the PNS because they connect the CNS to the body |
| which cranial nerves are associated with vision, olfaction and hearing? these are the sensory only ones and have their cell bodies in GANGLIA near the sensory organ. | olfactory (CN 1), optic (CN 2), vestibulocochlear (CN 8) |
| remember 7, 12, 5 and 5 mnemonic for spinal vertebrae | 7 cervical (but 8 spinal nerves), 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygeal |
| true or false, the spinal nerves alternate between sensory, motor, and mixed nerves | |
| what are the spinal nerve plexuses and their corresponding vertebrae? | cervical at C1-C4 w/ phrenic nerve, brachial at C5-T1 including radial, ulnar, and median nerves; lumbar at L1-L4 with its femoral nerve; sacral at L4-S4 with sciatic nerve, the largest in the body; coccygeal S4-Co1 |
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elianayu
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