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OCTH 721 exam 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| division of vestibulocochlear n. that carries info about sound to the CNS | auditory division |
| division of vestibulocochlear n. that carries info about head movement and position to CNS | vestibular division |
| division of ear: visible portion | outer ear |
| division of ear: tympanic membrane, malleus, incus, stapes | middle ear |
| division of ear: embedded in temporal bone (petrous portion), bony area contains bony labyrinth | inner ear |
| part of inner ear, suspended inside a membranous labyrinth, has 3 portion | bony labyrinth |
| portion of bony labyrinth: contains the cochlea | anterior portion |
| portion of bony labyrinth: contains the vestibule, utricle, and saccule | middle portion |
| portion of bony labyrinth: semicircular canals | posterior portion |
| in middle portion of bony labyrinth, connection to semicircular canals | utricle |
| in middle portion of bony labyrinth, connection to cochlea | saccule |
| space within structures of bony labyrinth, filled with endolymph, contains specializes mechanoreceptors for both hearing and balance that bend or get displaced with head movement | membranous labyrinth |
| fluid that is produced in and flows through the membranous labyrinth | endolymph |
| system responsible for converting sound vibrations in a fluid-filled environment (membranous labyrinth), outer and middle ear transfer sound to inner ear and stimulates hair cells to move, shares many structures with vestibular system but has own pathway | auditory system |
| type of hearing: sound conducted through ear canal | air conduction |
| type of hearing: vibration/sound travels through bone | bone conduction |
| fluid-filled structure in inner ear that contains Organ of Corti | cochlea |
| membrane/organ within cochlea, contains auditory receptors (hair cells) that respond to sound waves | Organ of Corti |
| mechanoreceptors that respond to deflection of bending of hairs | hair cells |
| sound waves reach tympanic membrane, structures of middle and inner ear vibrate, hair cells in Organ of Corti bend, CN VIII, signal travels through medulla, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate nucleus of thalamus, primary auditory cortex | pathway of auditory info |
| center for receptive language of spoken words | Wernicke's area |
| type of hearing impairment: damage to inner ear, hair cells, CN VIII, and/or brain; examples-lesion to cochlear division of CN VIII causes deafness or tinnitus, lesion to A1 leads to cortical deafness | sensorineural |
| type of hearing impairment: damage to outer and/or middle ear structures, sound isn't effectively conducted to reach the labyrinth; examples-accumulation of fluid in middle ear due to infection, bony growth impedes vibration of middle ear ossicles | conductive |
| test to determine hearing loss: localization; louder in abnormal ear with conductive loss, louder in unaffected ear with sensorineural loss | Weber |
| test to determine hearing loss: conduction; bone conduction is longer than air conduction with conductive loss, air conduction is longer than bone conduction with sensorineural loss | Rinne |
| system that maintains body position in space, essential for postural/motor control & for control of eye mvmts, responds to position of head relative to gravity & head mvmts via sensory receptors, conveys info about linear & angular acceleration of head | vestibular system |
| components: 3 semicircular canals (horizontal, posterior, and anterior) and 2 otolith organs (utricle and saccule) | vestibular system |
| organs that open at both ends into utricle, each has an ampulla that contains a crista, orthogonal/perpendicular to 1 another, push/pull system, each has a coplanar mate on contralateral side | semicircular canals |
| body of supporting cells and sensory hair cells | crista |
| gelatinous mass that hair cells are embedded in | cupula |
| each of these contains a single kinocilium (tallest) and a tuft of stereocilia (small) that generate action potentials in response to cupular deflection | sensory hair cells |
| deflection of stereocilia toward kinocilium in each hair cell leads to... | excitation / depolarization |
| deflection of stereocilia away from kinocilium in each hair cell leads to... | inhibition / hyperpolarization |
| each pair of what produces reciprocal signals, increased signals from 1 canal occur simultaneously with decreased signals from its partners | semicircular canals |
| if signals from a pair of semicircular canals are not ____, the person will experience difficulty with postural control, abnormal eye movements, and nausea | reciprocal |
| if a person turns their head to what side the horizontal stereocilia bend toward kinocilia on the right = excitation, left side = inhibition | right |
| if a person turns their head to what side the stereocilia bend away from kinocilia on the left = hyperpolarization and decreased firing, right = inhibition | left |
| otolith organ: patch/layer of sensory hair cells &supporting cells, project into gelatinous material, defection of stereocilia towards kinocilium causes excitation of hair cell, deflection of stereocilia away from kinocilium causes inhibition of hair cell | macula |
| otolith organ: calcium carbonate crystalline-structure material, provides an inertial mass, embedded in gelatinous matrix | otoconia |
| otolith organ: excited during (and thus detect) horizontal linear acceleration and static head tilt | utricle |
| otolith organ: excited by (and thus detect) vertical linear acceleration | saccule |
| head accelerates, received by vestibular n., action potential propagates down vestibular n., CN VIII terminates in 4 portions of vestibular nuclei, continues to destination in different pathways | pathway of vestibular info |
| portion of Scarpa's ganglion: posterior saccule and posterior semicircular canal | inferior vestibular ganglion / nerve |
| portion of Scarpa's ganglion: utricle, anterior saccule, and anterior and lateral semicircular canal | superior vestibular ganglion / nerve |
| pathway of vestibular system: mediate eye movement in response to change in posture, control, and steady gaze; aka vestibulo-ocular system | CNs III, IV, and VI |
| pathway of vestibular system: autonomic response for nausea and vomiting | visceral nuclei of brainstem and spinal cord |
| pathway of vestibular system: cause postural changes (taking a step to catch yourself) | motor neurons of spinal cord |
| part of brain that coordinates posture and muscle tone | cerebellum |
| pathway of vestibular system: conscious awareness of head position and movement, causes vertigo and motion sickness | cerebral cortex |
| role of vestibular system in motor control: vestibulo-ocular reflex, vestibular ocular control | gaze stabilization |
| role of vestibular system in motor control: this is achieved by spinal cord, reticular formation, superior colliculus, nucleus of CN SI, cerebellum | postural adjustments |
| how vestibular info impacts eye position during fast movements of the head, ability to reduce bouncing of an image while walking, ex. eyes look to left to compensate for head movement to right | vestibulo - ocular reflex |
| active rotation of head to observe visual fixation, test integrity of VOR with this maneuver to elicit | oculocephalic maneuver |
| vestibular symptom: illusion of motion, most common symptom of vestibular system disorders, occurs with both peripheral and central disorders, caused by disturbance of spatial orientation in vestibular cortex | vertigo |
| distinctions: near syncope (feeling faint), disequilibrium (loss of balance), light-headedness (inability to concentrate) | vertigo vs. dizziness |
| vestibular symptom: involuntary eye movement; 2 components-slow movement of eyes to 1 side until they reach their limit, quick jerk in opposite direction; both symptoms and condition/disorder; named for direction of fast component | nystagmus |
| vestibular disorder: caused by conflict between different types of sensory info, by postural instability, or by repeated rhythmic stimulation; symptoms dues to connection in brainstem of CN VIII and CN X; ex. seasickness or car sickness | motion sickness |
| vestibular disorder: oscillopsia, world seems to bounce up and down as person walks because normal reflexive adjustments for head movement are decreased, may present differently depending on location of damage | pathological nystagmus |
| sign of pathologic nystagmus, excessive drifting of visual images that degrades vision and may produce an illusion of motion | oscillopsia |
| type of pathologic nystagmus: lesion to midbrain or cerebellum, up and down beating, does not fatigue or habituate | central nystagmus |
| type of pathologic nystagmus: lesion of vestibular organs (semicircular canals or otoliths); rotational, horizontal, or vertical eye movements; fatigues and habituates | peripheral nystagmus |
| vestibular disorder: pathology of inner ear vestibular structures/vestibular portion of CN VIII; diminishes sensory info regarding head position and movement; symptoms-recurring periods of vertigo/nausea, nystagmus, diminished hearing and/or tinnitus | peripheral vestibular disorders |
| vestibular disorder: examples-vestibular neuritis, labyrinthitis, Meniere's disease, traumatic injury, benign paroxysmal positional vertigo | peripheral vestibular disorders |
| peripheral vestibular disorder: caused by displacement of otoconia from macula into a semicircular canal due to rapid change of head position; trauma or infection; results in acute onset of vertigo & nystagmus; spontaneous occurrence in some older adults | benign paroxysmal positional vertigo |
| peripheral vestibular disorder: provoking activities-getting into/out of bed, turning over in bed, bending over to look under something, reaching up to grab something off of a high shelf; subsides in less than 2 minutes even if head position is sustained | benign paroxysmal positional vertigo |
| peripheral vestibular disorder: inflammation of vestibular portion of CN VIII; usually caused by a virus; symptoms-disequilibrium, nausea, hearing is unaffected, spontaneous nystagmus, severe vertigo (up to 3 days); treatment-meds in acute phase | vestibular neuritis |
| peripheral vestibular disorder: inflammation of inner ear and irritation of vestibular n.; symptoms-disequilibrium, nausea, vertigo, hearing symptoms; usually caused by virus or bacteria; treatment-meds in acute phase | labyrinthitis |
| peripheral vestibular disorder: associated w/ abnormal fluid pressure in inner ear; symptoms-feeling of fullness in ear, tinnitus, severe acute vertigo, nausea, vomiting, hearing loss; treatment-drugs for vertigo, vestibular n. can be surgically severed | Meniere's disease |
| peripheral vestibular disorder: decreased reflexive eye movements in response to head movement, leads to nystagmus/oscillopsia, over time people report less difficulty, unilat. has balance impairments | bilateral lesion of vestibular n. |
| vestibular disorder: caused by damage to vestibular nuclei to connections within brain; most commonly a result of ischemia or tumors in BS/cerebellar region, cerebellar degen., MS, Arnold-Chiari malformation | central vestibular disorders |
| vestibular disorder: impacts integration and processing of sensory input from visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems; symptoms-more mild; ex. unilateral vestibular loss and bilateral vestibular loss | central vestibular disorders |
| central vestibular disorder: signals from damaged side are not correctly balanced with signals from unilateral side; causes problems with posture, eye movement control, and nausea; affects vestibulospinal system; symptoms-ocular tilt reaction | unilateral vestibular loss |
| central vestibular disorder: bilateral loss of otolith input eliminates a person's internal sense of gravity, person must rely on visual and proprioceptive cues for spatial orientation, creates difficulty walking in dark or on uneven surfaces, no vertigo | bilateral vestibular loss |
| does not directly affect structural changes or damage; effective for BPPV crystal repositioning, unilateral or bilateral vestibular loss that requires education and compensation, and vestibular disorders that benefit from movement retraining | rehab in vestibular disorders |
| roles of system: identify, perceive, and interpret all situations and objects we encounter; helps to maintain an upright posture and move extremities; provides us with accurate info to respond | visual system |
| division of visual structures: provides high quality and accurate info, info flow starts here, anterior to optic chiasm | anterior portion |
| division of visual structures: process visual info/signals, posterior to and including optic chiasm | posterior portion |
| anterior portion of visual system: outer layer (white portion) | sclera |
| anterior portion of visual system: transparent portion of sclera | cornea |
| anterior portion of visual system: circular, black opening; allows light to enter the eye | pupil |
| anterior portion of visual system: middle layer of eye that contains iris and lens | choroid |
| anterior portion of visual system: inside choroid, controls pupil size, colored portion of eyes | iris |
| anterior portion of visual system: inside choroid, focuses light rays on retina | lens |
| anterior portion of visual system: region where axons leaving retina gather to form optic n.; no photoreceptors = blind spot | optic disc |
| anterior portion of visual system: layer of photoreceptors that processes light info on post. eye | retina |
| anterior portion of visual system: within retina, function in dim light and peripheral vision, do not detect color | rods |
| anterior portion of visual system: within retina, color vision and acuity | cones |
| anterior portion of visual system: central region of retina with highest visual acuity | fovea centralis |
| anterior portion of visual system: oval surrounding fovea with high visual acuity | macula |
| posterior portion of visual system: where optic tracts emerge, some axons cross midline here | optic chiasm |
| posterior portion of visual system: convey visual info to LGN | optic tracts |
| posterior portion of visual system: on posterior midbrain, visual processing | superior colliculi |
| posterior portion of visual system: visual processing, from thalamus | lateral geniculate nucleus |
| posterior portion of visual system: carry info from colliculi to occipital lobe | geniculocalcarine tracts |
| posterior portion of visual system: primary visual cortex here | occipital lobe |
| light goes through cornea and lens, AP in rods and cones, invert and reverse projection of image on retina, axons sent to optic nn., L and R optic nn. meet at optic chiasm, fibers go to LGN and superior colliculi, fibers go on geniculocalcarine tracts | visual info pathway |
| visual info from left environment comes from what 2 visual fields | left temporal and right nasal |
| visual info from right environment comes from what 2 visual fields | right temporal and left nasal |
| type of visual field: projects to temporal retina (crosses), travel along lateral aspect of optic n. and tracts, info continues on same side | nasal fields |
| type of visual field: projects to nasal retina (crosses), travels along medial aspect of optic n. and tracts, crosses at optic chiasm | temporal fields |
| nasal info projects to temporal retina and travels along lat. optic n. and tracts, nasal info does not cross, temporal info projects to nasal retina and travels along med. optic n. and tracts, temporal info crosses optic chiasm, info received by R cortex | left visual field pathway |
| nasal info projects to temporal retina & travels along lat. optic n. & tracts, nasal info does not cross, temporal info projects to nasal retina & travels along med. optic n. & tracts, temporal info crosses at optic chiasm, eventually received by L cortex | right visual field pathway |
| info from thalamus to occipital lobe; broken into 2 pathways/radiations: inferior optic radiation (Meyer's loop)-info form inferior retina, and upper optic radiations-info from superior retina | geniculocalcarine tracts |
| area of occipital lobe: responsible for detection of visual info | primary visual cortex |
| area of occipital lobe: visual association area; sends visual info from V1 to various visual association areas to determine spatial characteristics, color, figure ground, and orientation | V2 |
| type of eye movement: both eyes move in same direction | conjugate |
| type of eye movement: eyes move toward or away from midline | vergence |
| influenced by visual stimuli, VOR, sensory info from extraocular mm., limbic system and voluntary control, and integration with auditory info | eye movements |
| quick, precise eye movements made during visual scanning or searching; movements to switch gaze from 1 object to another; ex. reading a book or looking for someone in a crowded room | saccades |
| movement of eyes toward (convergence) or away from (divergence) midline to adjust to different distances between eyes and visual target | vergence movements |
| adjusts eyes position during slow head movements, elicited by moving visual stimuli, response-optokinetic nystagmus, ex. watching objects pass while sitting on a slow-moving train | optokinetic reflex |
| physiologic (normal) nystagmus, noticed in train passengers watching a passing scene, slow phase (smooth pursuit following a visual image) or fast phase (corrective saccade opposite direction of movement to stabilize image) | optokinetic nystagmus |
| visual impairment: issues with accommodation, fixation, smooth pursuits, saccades, and nystagmus | cerebellar dysfunction |
| visual impairment: strabismus (malignant) and double vision/diplopia | CN III, IV, and VI dysfunction |
| frequency: -phoria = tendency to drift in named direction, -trophia = constant positioning in named direction; direction of deviation: eso = medial, exo = lateral, hyper = upward, hypo = downward | strabismus terminology |
| visual field deficit: unilateral damage = unilateral blindness; bilateral damage = bilateral blindness, due to large optic chiasm lesion or both optic nn. impacted | optic n. damage |
| visual field deficit: central optic chiasm damage; loss of bilateral temporal visual fields | bilateral hemianopia |
| visual field deficit: optic tract damage; loss of vision to same side of both eyes | contralateral homonymous hemianomia |
| visual field deficit: optic tract damage; "pie in the sky" deficit, blindness of superior quadrant of visual field, affects inferior optic radiations | contralateral homonymous superior quadrantanopia |
| visual field deficit: optic tract damage; "pie on the floor" deficit, blindness of inferior quadrant of visual field, damage to superior optic radiations | contralateral homonymous inferior quadrantanopia |
| visual field deficit: V1 lesion; loss of vision despite intact visual system anatomy, pupil intact so stimuli still enters the system, incomplete blindness | cortical blindness |
| visual condition: creates scotomas/blind spots | diabetic retinopathy |
| visual condition: peripheral field loss/tunnel vision | glaucoma |
| visual condition: decreased contrast sensitivity, glare sensitivity, and poor visual acuity, loss of central vision | macular degeneration |
| visual condition: decreased ability to see objects up close (farsightedness) | hyperopia |
| visual condition: decreased ability to see objects at a distance (near-sightedness) | myopia |
| 1. oculomotor control, 2. visual fields, 3. visual acuity, 4. visual attention, 5. scanning | visual screening |
| screening for visual acuity: Warren Text Card or Lighthouse Near Acuity Text | near |
| screening for visual acuity: Colenbrander or Leah Intermediate Assessments | intermediate |
| screening for visual acuity: Snellen | far |
| assesses VOR, ability to read an eye chart while the head is moving, typical response-less than 1 line loss of accuracy during head movements compared with their acuity when head is stable, abnormal response-loss of acuity of 2 or more lines on eye chart | dynamic visual acuity |
| ability to visually direct attention within all visual fields, multiple anatomical areas work together to direct this toward relevant visual stimuli for saccadic eye movements | visual attention |
| visual skill: adjust to changes in distance of objects to achieve sharpest focus; 3 steps process-change in lens thickness, convergence, pupillary constriction; ex. writing on a laptop then looking up at the board | accommodation |
| visual skill: ability to detect subtle changes in contrast between background and foreground | contrast sensitivity |
| cortex, left hemisphere (language), right hemisphere (interprets language), thalamus (relay center for processing info) | structures involved in perception |
| thalamic nuclei: processes visual info | lateral geniculate nucleus |
| thalamic nuclei: processes auditory info | medial geniculate nucleus |
| thalamic nuclei: processes tactile-sensory info | VPL and VPM |
| type of perceptual disorder: difficulty identifying and recognizing familiar objects and people despite having intact visual anatomy; lesion-R hemisphere occipital lobe or posterior multimodal association area | visual spatial disorders |
| visual spatial disorder: inability to identify familiar objects | visual agnosia |
| visual spatial disorder: inability to recognize familiar faces | prosopagnosia |
| visual spatial disorder: cannot interpret visual stimuli as a whole | simultanagnosia |
| visual spatial disorder: visual distortion of physical properties of objects (size, shape, weight) | metamorphopsia |
| visual spatial disorder: inability to attach appropriate colors to objects | color agnosia |
| visual spatial disorder: cannot remember names of colors | color anomia |
| visual spatial disorder: world appears in shades of gray | achromatopsia |
| type of perceptual disorder: difficulty accurately interpreting spatial relationships between their bodies and objects in the environment | visual spatial perceptual disorders |
| visual spatial perceptual disorder: difficulties understanding and using concepts of left and right | right - left discrimination dysfunction |
| visual spatial perceptual disorder: difficulties distinguishing foreground from background | figure - ground discrimination dysfunction |
| visual spatial perceptual disorder: difficulties attending to variations in form or changes in size | form - constancy dysfunction |
| visual spatial perceptual disorder: difficulties with positional concepts (above, behind, etc.) | position in space dysfunction |
| visual spatial perceptual disorder: difficulties comprehending relationship of 1 location to another | topographical disorientation |
| visual spatial perceptual disorder: impaired stereopsis, difficulties determining if 1 object is closer than another | depth perception dysfunction |
| type of perceptual disorder: distorted awareness of body (or specific parts), lots of safety concerns, lesion-R hemisphere posterior multimodal association area but can also result from L hemisphere lesions | body schema perceptual disorders |
| body schema perceptual disorder: impaired perception concerning relationship of fingers | finger agnosia |
| body schema perceptual disorder: inability to integrate perceptions from L side of body or environment | unilateral neglect |
| body schema perceptual disorder: neglect and failure to recognize one's affected extremities | anosognosia |
| body schema perceptual disorder: cannot decipher between stimuli on affected and unaffected extremities | extinction of simultaneous stimulation |
| type of perceptual disorder: difficulty with expression or comprehension of language (expressive or receptive), lesion-mostly L hemisphere but some can be L or R | language perceptual disorders |
| language perceptual disorder: difficulties comprehending literal interpretation of language; demonstrates impaired comprehension and limited ability to answer questions and follow commands, fluent speech but meaningless, unaware of deficit | Wernicke's / receptive aphasia |
| language perceptual disorder: inability to comprehend written words | alexia |
| language perceptual disorder: impaired ability to read due to inability to break words down | dyslexia |
| language perceptual disorder: difficulties comprehending gestures and symbols | asymbolia |
| language perceptual disorder: impaired comprehension of tonal inflections | aprosodia |
| language perceptual disorder: expressive or non-fluent, understands spoken language but cannot express ideas in an understandable manner; demonstrates naming difficulties, awareness of deficits, comprehension rarely intact | Broca's aphasia |
| language perceptual disorder: inability to remember and express names of common people and objects | anomia |
| language perceptual disorder: inability to arrange words sequentially to form intelligible sentences | agrammatism |
| language perceptual disorder: inability to write intelligible words and sentences | agraphia |
| language perceptual disorder: inability to write because patient cannot break words into letters | dysgraphia |
| language perceptual disorder: inability to calculate math problems | acalculia |
| language perceptual disorder: difficulty calculating math problems | dyscalculia |
| type of perceptual disorder: difficulties with motor planning, lesion-R hemisphere | motor perceptual disorders |
| motor perceptual disorder: inability to cognitively understand motor demands of a task especially with tool or object use, ex. may not understand a shirt is an article of clothing to be worn on torso/UE | ideational apraxia |
| motor perceptual disorder: loss of kinesthetic memory of motor patterns for a specific task, type 1-problems accessing appropriate motor plan, type 2-difficulties carrying out motor plan/may implement inappropriate plan | ideomotor apraxia |
| motor perceptual disorder: inability to dress oneself due to impairment in body schema or perceptual motor | dressing apraxia |
| motor perceptual disorder: inability to copy 2- and 3D shapes or models | 2- and 3-dimensional constructional apraxia |
| type of perceptual disorder: difficulty attaching meaning to objects in environment by touch alone, lesion-secondary somatosensory area/cortex (L or R) | tactile perceptual disorders |
| tactile perceptual disorder: inability to attach meaning to somatosensory or tactile data | tactile agnosia |
| auditory perceptual disorder: inability to attach meaning to sound; L hemisphere lesion-inability to attach meaning to language; R hemisphere lesion-inability to attach meaning to non-language sounds | auditory agnosia |
| auditory perceptual disorder: ability to combine senses in response to specific stimuli | synesthesia |
| surface of cerebral hemispheres, highly complex with 25 billion neurons, only a few millimeters thick but accounts for nearly 1/2 of the weight of the brain | cerebral cortex |
| category of fibers: extend to/from cerebral cortex; spinal cord, BS, BG, or thalamus; almost all travel through internal capsule | projection fibers |
| category of fibers: connect homologous (similar) areas within or between cerebral hemispheres; largest group, linking many areas of R and L hemispheres | commissural fibers |
| category of fibers: connect cortical regions with 1 hemisphere; short-connect adjacent gyri; long-connect lobes within 1 hemisphere | association fibers |
| newest area of human brain, consists of 6 layers arranged parallel to cortical surface, most superficial, certain patches are specialized to process certain types of info, localization of function | neocortex |
| published in 1909, divided and numbered based on microscopic appearance, correlates well with functional areas of cortex, 1-44 | Brodmann's areas |
| BA: functional area-primary somatosensory cortex, anatomical location-postcentral gyrus, function-touch | BA 1, 2, 3 |
| BA: functional area-primary motor cortex, anatomical location-precentral gyrus, function-voluntary movement control | BA 4 |
| BA: functional area-primary visual cortex, anatomical location-banks of calcarine fissure, function-vision | BA 17 |
| BA: functional area-primary auditory cortex, anatomical location-superior temporal gyrus, function-hearing | BA 41 |
| BA: functional area-Broca's area, anatomical location-inferior frontal gyrus, function-speech (expressive) | BA 44 |
| mapping of body surface, audible frequencies, or outside world onto cortical surface, maps are distorted, not equal representation for each body part, highly discriminating (sensory) or finely controlled (motor) parts of body have large areas on cortex | topographical orientation |
| division of cortex: carries out higher-order info processing | association cortex |
| division of cortex: emotional brain | limbic cortex |
| division of cortex: receive sensory info respective to corresponding sensation | primary sensory cortices |
| division of cortex: controls movement/motor output | primary motor cortex |
| primary sensory cortex: postcentral gyrus in parietal lobe; function-receives info from tactile and proprioceptive sensory receptors via a 3-neuron pathway; impairment-impairs ability to discriminate intensity of localize stims. on contralat. body | primary somatosensory cortex |
| primary sensory cortex: banks of calcarine sulcus on occipital lobe; function-receives visual info from light receptors; impairment-cortical blindness in contralateral visual field | primary visual cortex |
| primary sensory cortex: transverse temporal gyri; function-receives auditory info from cochlea of both ears; impairment-loss of ability to localize sound and minor hearing loss on contralateral side | primary auditory cortex |
| found on precentral gyrus in frontal lobe; source of most neurons in corticospinal tract; impairment-contralateral peresis; function-controls contralateral voluntary movements, particularly fine movements of hands and face | primary motor cortex |
| association cortex: higher-order processing mostly for a single sensory or motor modality, usually adjacent to a primary motor or sensory area | unimodal association cortex |
| association cortex: involved in integrating functions from multiple sensory and/or motor modalities | multimodal association cortex |
| unimodal association cortex: interpretation of somatosensations; impairment-astereognosis | somatosensory association cortex |
| unimodal association cortex: interpretation of visual info; impairment-visual agnosia | visual association cortex |
| unimodal association cortex: interpretation of auditory info; impairment-auditory agnosia and/or receptive aphasia | auditory association cortex |
| unimodal association cortex: motor planning and postural adjustments; impairment-apraxia, motor perseveration (stuck in motor task), etc. | motor association cortex |
| located where parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes meet; integrates sensory info for complete sensory experience, after integrating senses sends info to anterior multimodal association cortex | posterior multimodal association cortex |
| damage causes perceptual deficits, especially with R brain damage; problems with communication, understanding, and directing attention especially with L brain damage; altered reality of environment; impaired attention | damage to posterior multimodal association cortex |
| responsible for executive functions-planning, insight, foresight, and many of most basic aspects of personality; 2 areas-dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and venteromedial prefrontal cortex | anterior multimodal association cortex |
| part of anterior multimodal association cortex: integrates sensory data from posterior multimodal association area and uses it for executive functions, plays a critical role in working memory | dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |
| part of anterior multimodal association cortex: integrates emotions from limbic structures and uses it for executive functions; tempering temper | venteromedial prefrontal cortex |
| damage causes limited insight; disinhibition; impaired judgement and difficulty with goal setting/planning; difficulty with abstract reasoning and decreased mental flexibility; difficulty with working memory; little effect on intelligence | prefrontal cortex damage |
| sensory info received by primary sensory cortex, interpreted by unimodal association cortex, processed by posterior multimodal association cortex, sent to anterior multimodal association cortex, premotor area to access plan, primary motor cortex to act | cortical processing flow |
| lateralization is not apparent before what ages | ages 3 to 4 |
| awareness of self and environment, ability to respond to external stimuli or internal drives, varies moment to moment | consciousness |
| aspects: generalized arousal level, motivation for and initiation of motor activity and cognition, attention (selection of object of attention based on goals) | consciousness |
| caused by extensive cortical or white matter damage or extensive subcortical network damage; scales-Glasgow Coma Scale and Rancho Los Amigos Levels of Cognitive Functioning | loss of consciousness |
| state of unconsciousness from which 1 can not be aroused, lasts 1-2 weeks, if longer leads to vegetative state; levels-profound, semi-coma, stupor, minimal conscious/drowsy-confused, locked-in syndrome, medically-induced | coma |
| intact BS functions but no signs of meaningful interaction with environment (lack of awareness), may persist for years with medical intervention, related to ethical concerns | vegetative state |
| measures levels of consciousness following brain injury/damage; check, observe, stimulate, rate; assess eye opening and motor and verbal responses; scoring-8 or less = severe brain damage, 9 to 12 = moderate, 13 to 15 = mild | Glasgow Coma Scale |
| 10-step scale used to describe cognitive and behavior status, continuum, used following brain injury/damage or non-age related cognitive decline | Ranchos Los Amigos Scale |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: total assistance, deep sleep and unresponsive | 1 - no response |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: total assistance, reacts inconsistently and non-purposefully | 2 - generalized response |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: total assistance, increased purposeful and conscious response to stimuli, vague awareness of self | 3 - localized response |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: max assist, exaggerated response to stimuli | 4 - confused - agitated |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: max assist, agitated behavior due to external stimuli, verbalization is inappropriate and inappropriate use of objects | 5 - confused - inappropriate |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: mod assist, goal-directed behavior with cues | 6 - confused - appropriate |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: min assist, automatically goes through daily routine | 7 - automatic - appropriate |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: performs in home, community living, and driving; cannot tolerate emergencies, stress, and unusual circumstances | 8 - purposeful and appropriate |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: shifts between learned tasks, examines consequences, acknowledges needs of others | 9 - purposeful and appropriate |
| Ranchos Los Amigos level: multi-tasks, extended time to problem-solve, recognizes needs of others and respond | 10 - purposeful and appropriate |
| ability to use mental processing skills to interact with and meet demands of their environment | cognition |
| brain functions used to manage attention, emotions, and pursuits of goals | executive functioning |
| cognitive skill: awareness of surroundings; coma-eye opening in response to name or pinch; low and high level-awareness of surroundings | alertness / arousal |
| cognitive skill: ability to recall name, where they live/place, time /date/season | orientation |
| cognitive skill: recognize and name familiar individuals | recognition |
| cognitive skill: ability to focus on basic tasks or procedures | attention / concentration |
| type of attention: over a period of time | sustained attention |
| type of attention: attending while blocking out distractions | selective attention |
| type of attention: attending to 2 tasks at once | divided attention |
| type of attention: switch/transition between tasks | alternating attention |
| cognitive skill: ability to begin completing an activity such as ADLs without cues or assistance | initiation |
| complete activity and end it appropriately without cues or assistance | termination |
| cognitive skill: re-creation of specific events, fragmented across multiple brain regions, emotions influence, uses encoding methods | memory |
| type of memory: events less than 1 hour ago and up to 24 hours ago | short - term memory |
| type of memory: remember one's past, familiar others, and events more than several hours ago; can be recent (hours to weeks ago) or remote (several years ago) | long - term |
| type of memory: ability to carry out future events | prospective |
| type of memory: recall facts, fund of knowledge | semantic |
| type of memory: significant events for an individuals (time and place) | episodic |
| type of memory: recall steps of a task or how to complete it | procedural |
| type of memory: conscious intentional recall of info, related to new learning | explicit |
| type of memory: unconscious, recall of learned info, previous learning aides in task without conscious learning | implicit |
| type of memory: recall how, where, and when info was learned | source |
| type of memory: categorized by sensation and perception with visual, olfactory, gustatory, somatosensory, and auditory memory | perceptual |
| type of memory loss: loss of one's entire past following an injury; cannot transfer STM to LTM; hippocampus, diencephalon, and temporal lobe impacted | retrograde amnesia |
| type of memory loss: cannot remember ongoing day-to-day events although personal past is remembered; cannot transfer STM to LTM; hippocampus, diencephalon, temporal lobe, and frontal cortex pathways impacted | anterograde amnesia |
| type of memory loss: loss of memory of one's past and inability to remember ongoing occurrences; combo of retrograde and anterograde; not related to neurological event and usually clears within 24 hours | transient global amnesia |
| cognitive skill: ability to complete appropriate steps in order to complete task | sequencing |
| cognitive skill: ability to sort items or info in groups of similar characteristics | categorization |
| cognitive skill: ability to follow verbal or written commands or directions for task | command / direction - following |
| cognitive skill: ability to problem-solve to use safety and caution when completing ADLs/IADLs | safety / judgement |
| cognitive skill: ability to monitor and regulate one's impulses, urges, and compulsions | self - control |
| cognitive skill: ability to switch back and forth between 2 of more tasks | mental flexibility |
| cognitive skill: ability to encode STM to LTM, learning new things after brain injury | new learning |
| cognitive skill: compare, analyze, discriminate, and determine relationship when learning new info | generalization of learning |
| cognitive skill: knowledge of their own strengths and weaknesses | insight |
| cognitive skill: mentally conceptualize event/activity by assessing demands, analyzing, and synchronizing components of task, considering options, and making decisions | planning |
| cognitive skill: recognize problem, analyze, decision, assess outcome, and revise accordingly | problem - solving |
| short-term, subjective experience | emotion |
| primitive survival urges (eating, drinking, aggression, sexuality) | drives |
| structures lie between neocortex and hypothalamus; forms a structural border between diencephalon and neocortex; forms a functional border region between conscious and nonconscious areas of brain | limbic system |
| made up of mostly gray matter structures that are interconnected by white matter pathways; components-limbic lobe, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, adjacent areas of cortex, septal nuclei, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, olfactory cortex | limbic system |
| connections to prefrontal cortex | orbitofrontal cortex |
| pleasure and reward area in brain; feeding, sexual, reward, stress-related, and drug self-administration behaviors | nucleus accumbens |
| self-reward area in brain, plays a role in anger and rage | septal area |
| located in brainstem; considered part of limbic system because of its physiological effects-alertness/consciousness, behavior, and mood | reticular formation |
| primary functions of limbic system and their primary components | homeostasis = hypothalamus, olfaction = olfactory cortex, memory = hippocampus, emotions and drives = amygdala |
| part of diencephalon; location-anterior and inferior to thalamus, superior to pituitary gland, rostral to midbrain, caudal to optic chiasm; major structures-2 lobes, nuclei, mamillary bodies, and infundibular stalk | hypothalamus |
| master controller of homeostasis; integrates functions of endocrine, autonomic, somatic, and limbic systems (HEAL) | hypothalamus |
| pathway-olfactory stimuli reach CNS; only sense that doesn't travel through thalamus before going to primary sensory cortex; primary olfactory cortex-located in medial anterior tip of temporal lobe, near amygdala; emotional and memory links | olfactory cortex |
| anterior aspect of parahippocampal gyrus in temporal lobe, some fibers from olfactory cortex project here | entorhinal cortex |
| lies in medial temporal lobe, submerged deep into parahippocampal gyrus; function-convert STM to LTM | hippocampus |
| location-almond shaped collection of about a dozen nuclei, lies in medial temporal pole just anterior to hippocampus; function-links perception of objects and situations with appropriate emotional responses, source of raw emotions, interprets | amygdala |
| sensory input to amygdala: thalamus; olfactory bulb and cortex; unimodal visual, auditory, somatosensory, and gustatory associations cortices | five senses |
| sensory input to amygdala: "gut feellings", limbic cortex (anterior cingulate gyrus), orbitofrontal cortex, hypothalamus, brainstem | physiological / emotional state and visceral sensations |
| orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, sensory cortical areas | output from amygdala |
| knowledge (better understanding of tests), patient education (prep to answer questions from clients about diagnostic procedures they will have), interpretation and application (better understanding of and ability to critically appraise research) | why we should be familiar with neuroimaging techniques |
| uses-diagnostic imaging, study structure, study function, identify neurotransmitters | neuroimaging |
| neuroimaging structural technique: method-beam of xray is passed through structure, differential absorption of xrays; use-skull fractures or cranial bone tumors | x - ray |
| neuroimaging structural technique: method-xrays taken circumferentially at many angles, a computerized algorithm reconstructs series of 2D images from 3D image; use-explore regional anatomy, size of infarct or brain trauma | computed tomography |
| neuroimaging structural technique: method-patient is placed in powerful static magnetic field, detectors in machine map electromagnetic fields as locations and densities; use-exploration of regional anatomy but higher resolution | magnetic resonance imaging |
| neuroimaging structural technique: method-uses MRI to visualize tracts in white matter; use-tracking what areas of brain are talking to each other | diffusor tensor imaging |
| neuroimaging structural technique: method-patient under local anesthesia, conventional xray/radiograph is taken to visualize blood vessels; use-image intracranial vasculature | cerebral angiography |
| neuroimaging structural technique: method-blood flow is detectable in a similar fashion as MRI; use-visualize structures in which blood flow is relatively fast to look for plaque, stenosis, or occlusion | magnetic resonance angiography |
| neuroimaging functional technique: method-MRI completed as patient is engaged in task; use-imaging of brain function by detecting changes in blood oxygen level in response to cellular activity of brain region, assess areas to avoid during surgery | functional MRI |
| neuroimaging functional technique: method-unstable radionuclides (tracers) are injected into blood, more gamma rays in areas of brain involved in task; use-imaging of brain function and for detecting neoplasms | positron emission tomography |
| neuroimaging functional technique: method-peripheral sensory n. is stimulated, electrical activity evoked by stimuli is recorded and analyzed; use-if intact test integrity of entire sensory pathway | evoked potentials |
| neuroimaging functional technique: method-measures electrical activity generated by cortex; use-evaluation of many conditions | electroencephalography |
| most prominent during critical periods of development, over time is reduced; ongoing adjustments-learning and memory, habit development, response to injury/damage | neuroplasticity |
| infants must match neuronal connections to their body and external environment through what process that includes dying off of surplus neurons and retracting inappropriate connections | matching process |
| body produces limited neurotrophic factors, n. endings take them up and transport them retrogradedly to neuronal cell bodies, neuronal competition, neurons no longer require neurotrophic factors later in development | how humans make sure the right neurons survive |
| plasticity is maximal during these times, periods vary in length at different parts of the brain, synapses made during these times are more or less permanent, allow for acquisition of complex skills such as language and visual discrimination | critical periods |
| examples: young children learn language more easily than adults, infants can discriminate against speech sounds of all languages | critical periods |
| increase in synaptic efficiency | potentiation |
| decrease in synaptic efficiency | depression |
| "neurons that fire together, wire together", experience can alter brain structure and function, strength of a synapse is influenced by history of activity at synapse | Hebb's Principle |
| use it or lose it, use it and improve it, salience, repetition, intensity, specificity, age, time, transference, interference | Kleim's Principles of Neuroplasticity |
| can re-grow after injury (typical rate is 1 millimeter per day); examples-crush injuries regenerate well, complete n. transection has partial recovery in an abnormal path | PNS nerve fibers |
| do not typically regenerate, glial cells impede growth by laying down scar tissue and producing molecules that impede neuronal growth, if axons do not reestablish connections cell bodies atrophy, whole neuron may die from damage | CNS neurons |
| neuronal stem cells produce new CNS neurons or glial cells; offer potential for using stem cells to replace dead brain cells; studies on mice showed that environments including novelty and physical exercise increased amount of stem cells produced | neurogenesis |
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emma.scarmon-coyotes
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