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OCTH 721 exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| made up of specialized cells that conduct electrical signals throughout the body; plays a role in processing/transmitting sensory or motor information, bodily functions, cognition, and more | nervous system |
| consists of brain and spinal cord, encased in bone | central nervous system |
| consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and ganglia, 31 pairs of spinal nerves and dorsal root ganglia, sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves and ganglia, and is a communication tool between the CNS and rest of body | peripheral nervous system |
| anatomical classifications of nervous system | CNS and PNS |
| consists of smooth muscles and glands, regulates homeostasis, does "background" functions, has 2 subdivisions, is automatic | autonomic nervous system |
| subdivision of ANS, fight or flight, norepinephrine, consists of T1-L3 | sympathetic nervous system |
| subdivision of ANS, rest and digest, acetylcholine, consists of CNs and S2-S4 | parasympathetic nervous system |
| consists of musculoskeletal tissue and skin | somatic nervous system |
| functional classifications of nervous system | ANS and SNS |
| matter where information travel starts and ends; consists of cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals/synapses; "businesses" | gray matter |
| matter where information travels, consists of myelinated axons (cause of color), connects other matter, "highways" | white matter |
| on the (brain/spinal cord) gray matter is on the outside and white matter is on the inside | brain |
| on the (brain/spinal cord) gray matter is on the inside and white matter is on the outside | spinal cord |
| term for toward the head / beak | rostral / cranial |
| term for toward the coccyx / tail | caudal |
| term for toward the front / belly | ventral |
| term for toward the back | dorsal |
| (afferent/efferent) is a term for conducting info centrally or towards, sensory | afferent |
| (afferent/efferent) is a term for conducting info peripherally or away, motor | efferent |
| term that describes superior part of brain or the posterior aspect of brainstem | dorsal |
| term that describes inferior part of brain or anterior aspect of brainstem | ventral |
| what part of the brain marks where dorsal and ventral describe the brainstem or cortex | cephalic bend |
| plane that separates anterior and posterior | coronal plane |
| plane that separates superior and inferior | transverse plane |
| plane that separates left and right | sagittal plane |
| corpus callosum, diencephalon, basal ganglia, limbic lobe, internal capsule | deep structures of cerebral hemispheres |
| made up of midbrain, pons, and medulla | brainstem |
| have enlargements at these 2 areas of spinal cord because both areas have plexuses which supply extremities and have to travel further, more movements and areas to cover | cervical and lumbar |
| controls opposite side of body, plays a role in writing and memory | cerebral hemispheres |
| contributes to balance and coordination | cerebellum |
| regulates breathing coordination, sleep, and helps to maintain homeostasis | brainstem |
| part of CNS, functions are movement and sensation throughout the body, interacting with the environment, and reflexes | spinal cord |
| during what week of NS development does the neural plate form, then fold inward forming a neural groove with a neural fold on each side, then the groove deepens and the folds come together | week 3 |
| during what week of NS development does the fusion of the neural folds begin forming a neural tube and fully closes by the end of the week | week 4 |
| when the neural tube closes it leaves behind these that later become the PNS | neural crest cells |
| after the neural tube closes it later becomes what part of the nervous system | CNS |
| phase of nervous system development: neural plate forms and eventually folds to form the neural tube which closes by the end of this phase | phase 1: primary neurulation |
| phase of nervous system development: sulcus limitans forms and a secondary cavity forms after neural tube closure | phase 2: secondary neurulation |
| during what week of NS development does the sulcus limitans form inside the neural tube | week 4 |
| what structure differentiates cells into specializations in week 4 of embryonic development | sulcus limitans |
| in week 4 of embryonic development what type of cells do dorsal cells become | sensory |
| in week 4 of embryonic development what type of cells do ventral cells become | motor |
| during what week(s) of NS development does the secondary cavity form which gives rise to the sacral spinal region | weeks 5 and 6 |
| prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon | primary vesicles |
| bend in primary vesicles that is between the brainstem and forebrain in adulthood | cephalic flexure |
| bend in primary vesicles that does not continue into adulthood | cervical flexure |
| telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon | secondary vesicles |
| primary vesicle that becomes telencephalon and diencephalon | prosencephalon |
| primary vesicle that becomes metencephalon and myelencephalon | rhombencephalon |
| secondary vesicle that becomes cerebral hemispheres | telencephalon |
| secondary vesicle that becomes thalamus, hypothalamus, retina, and other structures | diencephalon |
| secondary vesicle that becomes midbrain | mesencephalon |
| secondary vesicle that becomes pons and cerebellum | metencephalon |
| secondary vesicle that becomes medulla | myelencephalon |
| in what months of gestation do neurons and glial cells continue to form and migrate, myelination occurs, and the cerebral cortex begins to form convolutions | third through fifth |
| at the beginning of what week do convolutions begin to appear and increase in number on the brain | 24 weeks |
| brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life in response to new situations or to changes in the environment | neuroplasticity |
| function of neuroplasticity that creates new connections and pathways or recovers connections of pathways | reorganization |
| function of neuroplasticity that evolves with exposure to environment, experiences, practice, and occupations | new neural connections |
| main section of cerebral hemispheres | lobes |
| shallow groove in cerebral cortex, valleys | suclus |
| narrow, linear groove that separates 2 surfaces or tissues, canyons | fissure |
| folds or bumps on surface of cortex, hills | gyrus |
| connection between left and right sides of brain | commissure |
| divides left and right hemispheres of brain, connected by corpus callosum, runs perimeter of brain between hemispheres | longitudinal fissure |
| divides frontal and parietal lobes | central sulcus |
| divides frontal and temporal lobes | lateral sulcus |
| divides precentral gyrus from superior, middle, inferior gyri; in frontal lobe | precentral sulcus |
| divides postcentral gyrus from superior and inferior parietal lobes; in parietal lobe | postcentral sulcus |
| divides parietal and occipital lobes | parietooccipital sulcus |
| divides limbic lobe from frontal and parietal lobes | cingulate sulcus |
| lobe of brain: lateral sulcus, central sulcus; superior, middle, and inferior gyri; superior and inferior sulci; contains primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, Broca's area, and prefrontal cortex | frontal lobe |
| within frontal lobe: initiation of voluntary movement, posterior to precentral sulcus, 1/2 of precentral gyrus | primary motor cortex |
| within frontal lobe: planning movements; along precentral sulcus; 1/2 of precentral gyrus and posterior superior and middle gyri | premotor cortex |
| within frontal lobe: responsible for expressive language, within left hemisphere, posterior inferior gyrus | Broca's area |
| within frontal lobe: executive function, higher-order thinking, and higher cognition; rest of superior, middle, and inferior gyri | prefrontal cortex |
| lobe of brain: central sulcus, intraparietal sulcus; inferior and superior lobules; contains primary somatosensory cortex, Wernicke's area, spatial orientation and attention | parietal lobe |
| what makes up the inferior parietal lobule | supramarginal and angular gyri |
| within parietal lobe: detecting sensory information from the body, anterior postcentral gyrus, along central sulcus | primary somatosensory cortex |
| within parietal lobe: receptive language, within supramarginal gyrus and part of temporal lobe | Wernicke's area |
| within parietal lobe: found along intraparietal sulcus; within superior parietal lobule, supramarginal gyrus, and angular gyrus | spatial orientation and attention |
| lobe of brain: lateral sulcus, superior and inferior sulci within lobe; lingual gyrus; contains primary auditory cortex, Wernicke's area, higher-order visual processing, and learning and memory | temporal lobe |
| lobe of brain that contains superior, middle, inferior, lingual, occipitotemporal/fusiform gyri | temporal lobe |
| within temporal lobe: detects auditory stimuli, superior and middle of superior gyrus | primary auditory cortex |
| within temporal lobe: receptive language; posterior, superior part of superior temporal gyrus | Wernick's area |
| within temporal lobe: recognizing faces, shapes, colors; inferior temporal gyrus | higher - order visual processing |
| within temporal lobe: within parts of lingual gyrus, occipitotemporal gyrus, and parahippocampal lobe | learning and memory |
| lobe of brain: parietooccipital, calcarine, and collateral sulci; preoccipital notch; cuneus, lingual, and occipitotemporal gyri; contains primary visual cortex and higher-order visual processing | occipital lobe |
| occipital lobe: sulcus that stops before lingual gyrus, separates occipital and parietal lobes | parietooccipital sulcus |
| occipital lobe: sulcus that separates cuneus and lingual gyri, and separates parietal lobe and lingual gyrus | calcarine sulcus |
| occipital lobe: sulcus that separates lingual and occipitotemporal gyri | collateral sulcus |
| occipital lobe: division between occipital and temporal lobes | preoccipital notch |
| within occipital lobe: receives visual stimuli/input, along calcarine sulcus | primary visual cortex |
| within occipital lobe: consists of majority of occipital lobe | higher - order visual processing |
| lobe of brain: cingulate and subparietal sulci; cingulate and paraterminal gyri; contains subcallosal area, uncus, and isthmus; functions are emotions, drives, behaviors, and memory | limbic lobe |
| limbic lobe: sulcus that separates limbic lobe from rest of lobes, superior aspect of limbic lobe | cingulate sulcus |
| limbic lobe: sulcus that runs along posterior aspect of limbic lobe | subparietal sulcus |
| within limbic lobe: "fold" on parahippocampal gyrus | uncus |
| within limbic lobe: transition between gyri | isthmus |
| responsible for higher-order cognition, found next to olfactory bulbs | gyrus rectus |
| structure on inferior aspect of brain that is responsible for intellectual and emotional expression, found near where eye would be | orbital gyri |
| responsible for communication between brain and body, superior to brainstem, diencephalon, egg-shaped | thalamus |
| responsible for sleep patterns with melatonin and serotonin, posterior to thalamus, diencephalon | pineal gland |
| has 2 hemispheres, responsible for coordination of movement, vermis is the central part that connects the hemispheres | cerebellum |
| responsible for visceral functions and autonomic control, anterior and inferior to thalamus, diencephalon | hypothalamus |
| connects the thalamus at the midline, diencephalon | interthalamic adhesion |
| part of brainstem: responsible for motor movement of eye as well as auditory and visual processing | midbrain |
| part of brainstem: relays info to cerebellum, sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder, and more | pons |
| part of brainstem: digestion, swallowing, respiration | medulla |
| has 4 parts: rostrum, genu, body, and splenium | corpus callosum |
| deep structures of brain: responsible for motor control, motor learning, executive functioning, and emotions; 1 of each on both hemispheres | caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus |
| deep structure of brain: filled with CSF, 1 on each hemisphere | lateral ventricles |
| deep structure of brain: bundles of white matter that connect cortex to deep structures, damage cuts off communication, contains fibers and axons, lateral to caudate nucleus | internal capsule |
| deep structure of brain: part of limbic system; responsible for emotions, motivation, learning, memory; inferior to thalamus | hippocampus |
| deep structure of brain: part of limbic system, hippocampus output, surrounds posterior aspect of thalamus | fornix |
| deep structure of brain: regulates emotions and perception of emotion, anger and fear, anterior to hippocampus | amygdala |
| 2 types of cells in nervous system | neurons and glia |
| nerve cells; receive info, process it, and generate output | neurons |
| non-nerve cells; supporting roles, do not conduct messages | glia |
| use electrical signals to communicate within and chemical signals to communicate between multiple; encased in a plasma membrane; 3 primary components: dendrite, cell body, and axon | neuron |
| part of neuron: branching processes that receive info and conduct it toward the cell body | dendrite |
| part of neuron: cell body | soma |
| part of neuron: single, long cylindrical process that conducts info away from cell body | axon |
| part of neuron: lipid layer around axons, increases speed of action potentials | myelin |
| part of neuron: neuron junctions, where communication happens | synapse |
| major organelle of soma: control center, contains genetic material | nucleus |
| major organelle of soma: protein synthesis for cell use or neurotransmitters (when attached to rough ER) | ribosomes |
| major organelle of soma: lipid synthesis | smooth ER |
| major organelle of soma: protein synthesis | rough ER |
| major organelle of soma: packages neurotransmitters | golgi apparatus |
| major organelle of soma: energy production | mitochondria |
| preferred sites for synaptic inputs, each one increases surface area available for synaptic inputs | dendritic tree or spines |
| single output of a neuron; transmits action potentials away from cell body; can range in length; parts: axon hillock, initial segment; most are covered in myelin | axons |
| part of axon: "trigger zone", technically in cell body | axon hillock |
| part of axon: distal to axon hillock, most electrically excitable part of neuron, initiates action potential | initial segment |
| network of protein filaments contained within nearly all parts of neurons that give neurons their shape and assist in transportation within the neuron; has 3 parts: microtubules, neurofilaments, microfilaments | cytoskeleton |
| part of cytoskeleton: cylinder of 13 strands of tubulin | microtubules |
| part of cytoskeleton: rope-like assembly of proteins | neurofilaments |
| part of cytoskeleton: thinnest, twisted pair of actin filaments | microfilaments |
| used to describe material travelling away from the cell body and towards the synapse | anterograde transport |
| used to describe material travelling toward the cell body | retrograde transport |
| speed of axonal transport, transport of soluble proteins, only anterograde | slow |
| speed of axonal transport, transport of membrane-associated substances, use of microtubules as "tracks", anterograde or retrograde | fast |
| virus that can gain access to CNS through fast retrograde transport which causes the disease | poliovirus |
| virus that gains access to soma through retrograde transport | herpes virus |
| treatment that stops cell division and axonal transport, can lead to neuropathies and pain | chemotherapy |
| neuron shape classification: has multiple dendrites, designed to receive and accommodate large amounts of input, typical neuron; examples - spinal motor cell, cerebral and cerebellar cortex | multipolar |
| neuron shape classification: has 2 primary processes; examples - retinal neuron and olfactory epithelium | bipolar |
| neuron shape classification: subset of bipolar neuron, appears to have a single projection, divides into 2 axonal roots, no true dendrites; examples - peripheral sensory nerves | pseudounipolar |
| neuron function classification: receptive to sensory input either directly or through connections with receptor cells | sensory neurons |
| neuron function classification: end on muscles, glands, or other neurons; provide output | motor neurons |
| neuron function classification: processes located within a small area in CNS | interneurons |
| neuron function classification: neurons in CNS with long axons that project to another part of CNS | projection neurons |
| what 2 types of neurons make up 90% of neurons | interneurons and projection neurons |
| mechanism by which neurons communicate with each other or with glands or muscles | synaptic transmission |
| special zone of contact in which 1 neuron communicates with another | synapse |
| part of a synapse: distal end of axon | presynaptic element |
| part of a synapse: separation between 2 elements | synaptic cleft |
| part of a synapse: contains neurotransmitters, released from presynaptic element into cleft, and bind to receptor sites in postsynaptic membrane which causes an electrical signal in postsynaptic neuron | synaptic vesicles |
| part of a synapse: part of another neuron that original synapse is communicating with in a synapse | postsynaptic element |
| type of CNS synapse: axon of 1 cell to dendrite of another, most common | axodendritic |
| type of CNS synapse: axon to soma | axosomatic |
| type of CNS synapse: axon to axon | axoaxonic |
| type of CNS synapse: dendrite to dendrite | dendrodendritic |
| principal PNS glia, functions are metabolic support and electrical insulation, wrap around most individual axons for myelination, have nodes of Ranvier and internodes | Schwann cells |
| interruptions in myelin sheath | nodes of Ranvier |
| areas of myelin between nodes of Ranvier | internodes |
| flatted Schwann cells that surround neuronal cell bodies | satellite cells |
| CNS, in white and gray matter, from myelin sheaths, counterpart to Schwann cells, 1 of these can produce several internodes and several different axons | oligodendrocytes |
| largest of CNS glia; highly-branched; 2 types; roles are structural support, end feet branches provide "carpet" over capillaries and neurons, and can proliferate in response to CNS injury | astrocytes |
| type of astrocyte: in gray matter, provide mechanical and metabolic support in response to injury | protoplasmic astrocytes |
| type of astrocyte: in white matter, provide mechanical and metabolic support in response to injury | fibrous astrocytes |
| smallest of CNS glia, in gray and white matter, does phagocytosis, CNS's "immune system" | microglia |
| CNS glia found in walls of ventricles, found in ventricles and choroid plexus, facilitate flow of CSF, involved in blood-CSF barrier, involved in production and secretion of CSF | ependymal cells |
| tumors of glial cell origin | gliomas |
| tumor of PNS, usually encapsulated with no nerve fiber involvement, easily removed | Schwannoma |
| tumor of PNS, encapsulated by infiltrating nerves, difficult to remove | neurofibroma |
| majority of brain tumors are of what type of CNS glia origin | astrocyte |
| required for NS conduction and efficiency, lipid substance, created from oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, insulates axons to improve velocity and efficiency of an AP | myelin |
| type of demyelination caused by autoimmune disorders, metabolic abnormalities, viruses, trauma, and toxic chemicals; starts distally and moves proximally; example - Guillain-Barre Syndrome | PNS demyelination |
| type of demyelination; example - Multiple Sclerosis: autoimmune disease, body produces antibodies that attack oligodendrocytes; slowed or blocked APs, areas of demyelination are replaced by astrocytic plaques | CNS demyelination |
| functions are to stabilize and suspend CNS, cranial and spinal | meninges |
| ways that meninges stabilize and suspend brain | mechanical and buoyant |
| thick, tough, hard; 2 fused layers (periosteal and meningeal) except at sinuses; attached to inner surface of skull; supplied by meningeal arteries; pain sensitive (CN V, CN X, CN 2 & 3); intradural, epidural, and subdural spaces | cranial dura mater |
| actual space of cranial dura mater | dural sinus |
| potential spaces of cranial dura mater | epidural and subdural |
| falx cerebri, tentorum cerebelli, falx cerebelli, diaphragma sellae | principal folds of cranial dura mater |
| fold of cranial dura mater: separates cerebral hemispheres, main dural fold, longitudinal fissure | falx cerebri |
| fold of cranial dura mater: separates cortex and cerebellum, bilateral | tentorum cerebelli |
| fold of cranial dura mater: separates cerebellar hemispheres | falx cerebelli |
| fold of cranial dura mater: opening for pituitary gland/fossa | diaphragma sellae |
| naturally-occurring intradural spaces, cerebral vv. empty venous blood, these eventually drain into internal jugular v. | cranial dural venous sinuses |
| thin, avascular meninges, loosely surround brain, semitransparent; purpose is to suspend brain with trabeculae and serves as a barrier; has granulations or villi (projections into dural sinuses); major site of reabsorption of CSF into venous system | cranial arachnoid mater |
| only "normal" fluid-filled space associated with cranial arachnoid mater, filled with CSF, contains cisterns (areas with higher volume of CSF, ex. cisterna magna), can be filled with blood because of hemorrhaging | subarachnoid space |
| delicate, thin meningeal layer, contours closely to external surface of brain, highly vascular | cranial pia mater |
| bleeding between dura and skull; causes: tearing of meningeal arteries (rapid, localized bleeding) or trauma (TBI) | epidural hematoma |
| bleeding into dural sinus and arachnoid; causes: tearing of veins in subdural space (slower, diffused bleeding), trauma (TBI), shaken baby/shearing injury, or rapid acceleration/deceleration of brain | subdural hematoma |
| if small may not require surgery, if large a craniotomy or burr holes may be used to relieve pressure or remove | treatment for hematomas |
| single-layered, meningeal layer of cranial becomes spinal, suspended in vertebral column from foramen magnum to S2 | spinal dura mater |
| actual space between dural and vertebral periosteum | spinal epidural space |
| has a subarachnoid space which is large between the end of the spinal cord and S2 (lumbar cistern - largest space for CSF that is most easily accessed) | spinal arachnoid space |
| attached to CNS surface, expanded as denticulate ligaments | spinal pia mater |
| suspends brain through partial floatation, provides protection and cushioning, regulates fluid surrounding neurons and glia, provides route for chemical messengers, sterile, clear, colorless, removes unwanted substances from CNS, produced in ventricles | CSF |
| spaces in brain cavities where CSF is produced and found, 4 of these in the brain, borders are formed by surrounding structures | ventricles |
| parts: anterior horn, body, posterior horn, inferior horn, and atrium; travels to interventricular foramina | lateral ventricles |
| what ventricles does the interventricular foramina connect | lateral ventricles and 3rd ventricle |
| narrow, slit-shaped; travels to cerebral aqueduct; borders formed by thalamus and hypothalamus; midline cavity of diencephalon | 3rd ventricle |
| what ventricles does the cerebral aqueduct connect and what goes through it | 3rd and 4th; CSF |
| found between cerebellum and pons/medulla, diamond-shaped, travels to subarachnoid space via median aperture and 2 lateral apertures, also travels to central canal of the spinal cord | 4th ventricle |
| within what space of cranial meninges does CSF travel | subarachnoid space |
| plexus of specialized epithelial cells lining all ventricles (ependymal cells), vascular and membranous components, secretes CSF, provides blood-brain barrier in ventricles | choroid plexus |
| excess, blockage, or deficiency in CSF reabsorption; types: communication/non-obstructive or non-communication/obstructive; treatment: shunt placement or hole in floor of 3rd ventricle | hydrocephalus |
| after __ seconds without blood supply to brain people lose consciousness | 10 |
| after __ seconds without blood supply to brain electrical activity ceases | 20 |
| after a few minutes without blood supply to brain what happens | irreversible damage |
| provides anterior circulation; 80% of blood supply to brain; supplies telencephalon, diencephalon, and most of cerebrum | internal carotid a. |
| provides posterior circulation 20% of blood supply to brain; supplies brainstem, cerebellum, part of diencephalon, spinal cord, and occipital and temporal lobes | vertebral a. |
| forms from common carotid a.; gives rise to ophthalmic a., anterior choroidal a., anterior cerebral a., posterior communicating a., and middle cerebral a. | interior carotid a. |
| branch of ICA: travels along optic n.; supplies eye, other orbital contents, and nearby structures | ophthalmic a. |
| branch of ICA: supplies optic tract; choroid plexus of lateral ventricles; and portions of internal capsule, thalamus, and hippocampus; long, thin, often involved in CVAs | anterior choroidal a. |
| branch of ICA: goes to longitudinal fissure; supplies medial aspect of frontal and parietal lobes | anterior cerebral a. |
| branch of ICA: direct continuation of ICA; runs deep in lateral sulcus; supplies lateral surface of brain (insula, temporal, frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes); most common a. involved in stroke; branches: lenticulostriate, other perforating aa. | middle cerebral a. |
| connects anterior cerebral aa. | anterior communicating a. |
| branches off ICA; connects ICA to posterior cerebral a. | posterior communicating a. |
| supplies medial and inferior temporal and occipital lobes (primary visual cortex), branches to posterior diencephalon and anterior midbrain | posterior cerebral a. |
| supplies choroid plexus of 3rd ventricle and body of lateral ventricle | posterior choroidal aa. |
| arises from subclavian a., 2 vertebral aa. run between medulla and pons and come together to form basilar a. | vertebral - basilar a. |
| branches are posterior spinal a., anterior spinal a., posterior inferior cerebellar a. | vertebral aa. |
| 2, supplies posterior 1/3 of spinal cord | posterior spinal aa. |
| 1, supplies anterior 2/3 of spinal cord | anterior spinal a. |
| 2, supplies inferior cerebellum and dorsolateral medulla | posterior inferior cerebellar a. |
| condition caused by damage to PICA; symptoms: dysphagia, hoarseness, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, nystagmus, coordination/balance problems, uncontrollable hiccups | Wallenburg's syndrome |
| formed by joining of 2 vertebral aa.; branches: anterior inferior cerebellar aa., superior cerebellar aa., pontine aa., internal auditory/labyrinthine aa. | basilar a. |
| connection of ICA and vertebral-basilar systems; anterior cerebral aa., internal carotid aa., posterior cerebral aa. connect both sides; ensures blood flow to brain when ICA or vertebral-basilar systems are compromised | Circle of Willis / Cerebral Arterial Circle |
| stroke, most common neurological injury, 2 types: ischemic and hemorrhagic | cerebrovascular accident |
| type of CVA; 83% of CVAs; sudden block of blood flow; thrombotic - blood clot formed within vessel; embolic - blood clot formed elsewhere becomes lodged in vessel | ischemic |
| type of CVA; 17% of CVAs; caused by aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation (AVM), or head injury | hemorrhagic |
| network of cells & vessels protect brain while allowing some substances thru; achieved through arachnoid barrier layer, blood-CSF barrier, & tight junctions btw endothelial cells of CNS capillaries; benefits & risks: keeps microorganisms & antibiotics out | blood - brain barrier |
| system of cerebral vv., empty into dural venous sinuses then internal jugular vv., blockage and rupture are much less common in this system | venous system |
| if this a. is damaged cognition/executive functioning, personality, motor planning, and sensory processing are affected | anterior cerebral a. |
| if this a. is damaged auditory/visual processing, cognition, personality, sensory-processing, and visual input are affected | middle cerebral a. |
| if this a. is damaged auditory- and visual-processing and visual input are affected | posterior cerebral a. |
| if these aa. are damaged cognition/executive functioning, personality, motor planning, sensory-processing, and visual input are affected | anterior cerebral and anterior communicating aa. |
| if this a. is damaged vision, intercerebral communication, and learning/memory are affected | anterior choroidal a. |
| if this a. is damaged balance, coordination, and life-sustaining functions are affected | superior cerebellar a. |
| property of a neuron that means they are able to respond to a stimulus | excitable |
| type of neuron response to a stimulus: restricted to place stimuli is received, develop and decay relatively slowly, can be compared and summed | graded / local |
| type of neuron response to a stimulus: relatively brief, convey info over distances, travel down neuron's axon (APs) | propogated |
| property of a neuron that assists with electrical signaling | membrane |
| property of a neuron membrane: partially selective in what enters and exits the cell | semi - permeable |
| property of a neuron membrane: imbalance in electrical charge on either side of membrane | polarized |
| property of a neuron membrane: collective difference in electrical potential between negative inside and positive outside of a neuron at rest | resting membrane potential |
| end of phospholipid: hydrophilic, towards intracellular and extracellular fluid | polar head |
| end of phospholipid: hydrophobic, away from fluid, face each other | fatty acid chain / tail |
| separates intracellular and extracellular fluids, each with their own ionic concentration gradient, not permeable to ions | neuronal membrane |
| what component of neuronal membrane regulates movement of ions across the membrane | protein |
| across the neuronal membrane how do ions move | higher concentration to lower concentration |
| type of ion movement across neuronal membrane, pumping ions across membrane, occurs through proteins called ion pumps | actively |
| type of ion movement across neuronal membrane, allows ions to flow down concentration or electrical gradients, this occurs through proteins called ion channels | passively |
| proteins within neuronal membrane; consists of subunits and a central aqueous pore (opening that ions move through); selectively allows a variable amount of current flow through membrane; characteristics: multiple states, selectivity, and gating | ion channels |
| characteristic of ion channels: open has high conductance, closed/inactive has low conductance | multiple states |
| characteristic of ion channels: ion channel's ability to allow only certain ions through | selectivity |
| characteristic of ion channels: mechanism by which ion channels switch states, multiple types | gating |
| type of gate: gate opens/closes based on changes in membrane potential, examples is Na+ channel that underlies AP | voltage - gated |
| type of gate: gate opens/closes based on binding of neurotransmitter or hormone, example is postsynaptic receptors that bind specific neurotransmitters | ligand - gated |
| type of gate: gate opens/closes based on temperature of neuron | thermally - gated |
| type of gate: gate opens/closes based on movement, example is hair cells in inner ear | mechanically - gated |
| type of channelopathy: episodes of weakness, caused by too much Na+ flowing into cell, inability to fire AP for minutes or hours | hyperkalemic periodic paralysis |
| type of channelopathy: difficult getting muscles to relax once contracted, caused by defective Cl- channel, ex. Becker's disease | myotonia |
| type of passive gradient: ions move from high to low concentration (diffusion) | concentration gradients |
| type of passive gradient: ions move from positive to negative change and negative to positive | electrical gradients |
| collective difference in electrical potential that exists between negative inside and positive outside of a neuron at rest, goal is to maintain at -65 mV, maintains a negative charge in the cell, ion pumps use active transport | resting membrane potential |
| type of pump that uses active transport (energy is needed to move ions across cell membrane), uses energy in form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | ion pumps |
| type of ion pump, removes Na+ from intracellular space to extracellular space, imports K+ from extracellular space to intracellular space | sodium - potassium pump |
| potential change: adding up of postsynaptic potentials generated at spatially separate sites of a neuron | spatial summation |
| potential change: adding up of postsynaptic potentials generated in same neuron at slightly different times | temporal summation |
| increasing permeability of neuronal membrane to what ion allows for an influx of the ion and would decrease of internal negativity of neurons, depolarization, closer to 0 | Na+ |
| increasing permeability of neuronal membrane to what ion allows for the ion to flow out of the neuron and would increase internal negativity of neurons, hyperpolarization, further from 0 | K+ |
| large amplitude change in membrane potential that is propogated over a long distance, starts on initial segment of axon, happen in an all-or-none fashion, has a refractory period | action potential |
| 1. cell membrane begins at resting membrane potential, 2. local excitatory state, 3. threshold, 4. rising phase, 5. peak, 6. falling phase, 7. afterhyperpolarization, 8. resting membrane potential is restored by Na+-K+ pump | action potential sequence |
| stage of action potential: neuron receives an excitatory input (temporally- and spatially-summed) and cell membrane depolarizes, Na+ cell membrane permeability increases, Na+ starts to flow into cell, electrical gradient changes | local excitatory state |
| stage of action potential: level of depolarization that results in an AP 50% of the time, sufficient depolarization occurs at ~-55 mV, leads to mass opening of voltage-gated Na+ channel, Na+ rushes in | threshold |
| stage of action potential: Na+ channels in open, activated state; mass increase in Na+ permeability - Na+ flows in rapidly; rapid depolarization | rising phase |
| stage of action potential: spike is ~35 mV, slower K+ channels open up, closing of Na+ channels leads to a decrease in Na+ conductance | peak |
| stage of action potential: K+ phase begins to flow out of cell down its concentration and electrical gradients, repolarization | falling phase |
| stage of action potential: membrane potential to dip below (more negative) resting membrane potential, outward flow of K+ | afterhyperpolarization |
| promotes forward propogation of AP, 2 types | refractory period |
| type of refractory period: occurs after peak phase of AP, no stimulus can elicit another AP because voltage-gated Na+ channels are in an inactivated state | absolute refractory period |
| type of refractory period: occurs before return to resting membrane potential, some voltage-gated Na+ channels have returned to resting state, strong stimulus can elicit a 2nd AP | relative refractory period |
| passive, forceful spread; results in voltage-gated Na+ channel opening and another AP occurs in adjacent area; depends on features of axon (diameter and myelination) | how APs are propogated |
| feature of axon that affects AP propogation: larger = increased conduction velocity and less resistance | larger diameter |
| feature of axon that affects AP propogation: leads to increased conduction velocity and more insulation | myelination |
| process: voltage spreads passively down myelinated regions of axon until it reaches a node, at node Na+ channels open and another AP is produced, continues and velocity tends to "jump" forward to each node | saltatory conduction |
| bare regions between areas of myelinated axon, contain many voltage-gated Na+ channels | nodes of Ranvier |
| how neurons chemically communicate with each other, glands, or muscles; occurs by release of chemicals (neurotransmitters); results most impacted by type of post-synaptic receptor | synaptic transmission |
| 2 categories: small molecules and large molecules; most are synthesized in rough ER and packaged by Golgi apparatus | neurotransmitters |
| neurotransmitter that is responsible for activating skeletal muscle in PNS and is involved in movement and attention in CNS | acetylcholine |
| neurotransmitter that is associated with learning and development | glutamate |
| neurotransmitter that affects motor activity, cognition, and behavior and is associated with feeling pleasure and reward | dopamine |
| neurotransmitter that is responsible for attentive functions and the fight/flight response | norepinephrine |
| neurotransmitter that is associated with mood and pain perception | serotonin |
| NT synthesis to the rough ER, NT is concentrated and packaged in synaptic vesicles and travel to presynaptic element, NT is released into synaptic cleft, NT binds to receptor molecules in postsynaptic membrane, NT action is terminated | sequence of chemical synaptic transmission |
| stage of chemical synaptic transmission: AP down axon depolarizes presynaptic nerve terminal, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels located in presynaptic terminal open and Ca2+ enters, influx of Ca2+ causes NT-filled vesicles to bind to active zones, exocytosis | NT is released into synaptic cleft |
| stage of chemical synaptic transmission: ligand-gated ion channels either open or close which leads to permeability changes of postsynaptic cell membrane | NT binds to receptor molecules in postsynaptic membrane |
| stage of chemical synaptic transmission: NT in synaptic cleft can diffuse away, NT can be reabsorbed by presynaptic ending or by glial cells, NT can be degraded by enzymes in synaptic cleft | NT action is terminated |
| what determines the effect of a NT | postsynaptic receptor |
| what compares and summates all inputs to determine how to respond | postsynaptic neurons |
| can be fast or slow, involves either a depolarizing (excitatory) or hyperpolarizing (inhibitory) potential change | postsynaptic potentials |
| type of postsynaptic potential: local depolarization, NT binds to receptors, ion channels open causing an influx of positively-charged ions, membrane is depolarized, an example is a neuromuscular junction (axons of motor nerves innervate muscle fibers) | excitatory postsynaptic potential |
| type of postsynaptic potential: local hyperpolarization, NT binds to receptor, ion channels open and allows an influx of neg-charged ions or efflux of pos-charged ions, membrane is hyperpolarized, inhibit generation of AP by postsynaptic cell, ex. is GABA | inhibitory postsynaptic potential |
| most drugs that affect the CNS act at what part of a neuron | synapse |
| type of drug that affects CNS and promotes effects of NT usually at NT receptor | agonist |
| type of drug that impedes effects of NT | antagonist |
| disease that affects chemical transmission at nerve-muscle synapse: autoimmune disease, antibodies bind with nicotinic cholinergic receptors in motor end plates preventing Ach from binding to these sites, result is muscles weakness in face and limbs | Myasthenia Gravis |
| bacteria that causes widespread paralysis by inhibiting release of Ach at neuromuscular junctions, therapeutic levels can cause paralysis up to 12 weeks, goal is to decrease spasticity and increase ROM and function | Botulinum toxin |
| disease that affects chemical transmission at nerve-muscle synapse: associated with altered levels of dopamine | schizophrenia |
| disease that affects chemical transmission at nerve-muscle synapse: associated with deficient levels of dopamine, treated with L-dopa | Parkinson's disease |
| use of these drugs affects norepinephrine and dopamine signaling by blocking reuptake and increasing release, act as stimulants | cocaine and amphetamines |
| disease that affects chemical transmission at nerve-muscle synapse: associated with high levels of norepinephrine | panic disorder |
| disease that affects chemical transmission at nerve-muscle synapse: low levels of serotonin, treated with Prozac | depression and suicidal behavior |
| types: traditional (5 senses), location (interoceptors, proprioceptors, exteroceptors), and adequate stimulus (chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and nocioceptors) | sensory receptors |
| type of location sensory receptor: monitor events within body | interoceptors |
| type of location sensory receptor: respond to changes in position of body and parts | proprioceptors |
| type of location sensory receptor: monitor events external to body | exteroceptors |
| type of adequate stimulus sensory receptor: respond to chemicals | chemoreceptors |
| type of adequate stimulus sensory receptor: respond to light | photoreceptors |
| type of adequate stimulus sensory receptor: respond to temperature | thermoreceptors |
| type of adequate stimulus sensory receptor: respond to physical deformation | mechanoreceptors |
| type of adequate stimulus sensory receptor: respond to pain (can be chemical, thermal, or mechanical) | nocioceptors |
| parts: receptive area (receives stimulus), area rich in mitochondria, synaptic area (info passed from PNS toward or into CNS) | sensory receptors |
| type, receptive fields, threshold, adaptation | characteristics of sensory receptors |
| characteristic of sensory receptors: role of receptor | type of receptor |
| characteristic of sensory receptors: specific locations in or beyond our bodies where application of an adequate stimulus causes a neuron to respond and can be spatially mapped in CNS | receptive fields |
| characteristic of sensory receptors: smallest intensity at which a particular sensation is detected | threshold |
| characteristic of sensory receptors: intensity of a sensation is perceived to diminish when stimulus is continuous and presented for an extended time (nocioceptors are exception), slow or rapid | adaptation |
| type of adaptation: respond best to unchanging stimuli | slowly |
| type of adaptation: respond best to changing stimuli | rapidly |
| modality (nature of sensory stimulus), location (site of sensory stimulus), intensity (strength of stimulus), duration (length of time a stimulus is presented) | characteristics of sensory stimuli |
| receptors that transduce a physical stimulus into an electrical signal, opening and closing of ion channels, focally-produced, spread electronically, large graded response | receptor potentials |
| all (action/sensory) potentials produce receptor potentials, but some do not produce (action/sensory) potentials | sensory ; action |
| sensory modalities connect with touch, proprioception, and interoception | somatosensation |
| type of somatosensation: touch, pressure, vibration | tactile senses |
| type of somatosensation: joint position, joint movement, direction/velocity of joint movements | proprioception or kinesthesia |
| process: stimulus, picked up by a specialized receptor where stimulus is transduced into an electrical impulse, RP or AP, info travels toward CNS via pseudounipolar sensory neuron, sensory neuron transmits info to other parts of CNS | somatosensation |
| pancinian corpuscle, meissner corpuscle, ruffini ending, endings around hairs, merkel endings, free nerve endings | types of cutaneous receptors |
| distribution of these is not even, greater spatial resolution is due to higher density of receptors with smaller receptive fields, more feeling is possible because of more receptors in a smaller area | cutaneous receptors |
| detected by nocioceptors, some detect stimuli that is modality-specific while some are polymodal, some are thinly myelinated and some are unmyelinated, received in 2 stages: sharp and fast or dull and slow, useful for detecting danger and/or damage | pain |
| proprioceptors that receive info from muscles about stretch and speed of stretch, detect muscle length in striated muscles, example: when you stretch and feel you have reached end point spindle sends info to spinal cord not to stretch further | muscle spindles |
| proprioceptors that receive info from tendons about tension as a result of muscle contraction, encapsulated sensory organs found at junctions between muscles and tendons, slowly adapting and no length change | golgi tendon organs |
| convey info to and from CNS; sensory or motor depending on direction; 3 components/layers: epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium; classified based on size and conduction velocity | peripheral nerves |
| component/layer of peripheral nerves: dense, loose connective layer enclosing each peripheral n., continuous with dura mater | epineurium |
| component/layer of peripheral nerves: lies within epineurium, sheath of connective tissue continuous with arachnoid mater enclosing each bundle of nerve fibers | perineurium |
| component/layer of peripheral nerves: loose, delicate connective tissue later within perineurium in which individual nerve fibers are enclosed, continuous with pia mater | endoneurium |
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emma.scarmon-coyotes
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