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Human Physiology
Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Physiology | study of being alive (what stops happening when you die) |
| Physiology is... | experimental, not observational |
| Levels of Complexity | chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, body system, organism |
| Types of Tissue | Muscle, Nervous, Epithelial, Connective |
| Tissues are... | groups of different types of cells performing a specialized task |
| Digestive System | processes food for use of the body and removes waste from undigested food |
| Urinary System | controls water balance in body and removes waste from blood |
| Lymphatic System | returns fluid to blood and defends against pathogens |
| Respiratory System | removes carbon dioxide from the body and delivers oxygen to blood |
| Male Reproductive System | produces sex hormones and gametes and delivers gametes to female |
| Female Reproductive System | produces sex hormones and gametes, supports embryo/fetus until birth, produces milk for infant |
| Muscular System | enables movement and helps maintain body temperature |
| Nervous System | detects and processes sensory information and activates bodily responses |
| Integumentary System | encloses internal body structures and site of many sensory receptors |
| Skeletal System | supports the body and enables movement |
| Endocrine System | Secretes hormones and regulates bodily processes |
| Cardiovascular System | delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and equalizes temperature in the body |
| ICF | Intracellular Fluid (contained within cells); inside of cell, low Na+ (sodium), high K+ (potassium) |
| ECF | Extracellular Fluid (fluid outside of cells); outside of cell, high Na+ (sodium), low K+ (potassium) |
| Interstitial Fluid (ISF or IF) | bathes cells directly |
| Plasma | circulates fuel and wastes to restore composition of ISF |
| ECF has 2 components: | Interstitial Fluid and Plasma |
| Homeostasis | cells can survive and thrive only when ECF is compatible with their survival, chemical and physical state must be maintained in specific limits, and maintenance of the ECF makes demands on entire organism |
| To be alive... | conditions must be maintained |
| to maintain these conditions... | organisms must interact with the environment |
| interacting with the environment... | endangers the conditions |
| To maintain homeostasis, the system must use... | sensor, integrator, effector, and the end of the process "negative feedback" |
| Sensor | detects the problem and transmits the information (1st step) |
| Integrator | makes sense of information and combines it with other data (2nd step) |
| Effector | makes adjustments that restore the original conditions |
| Negative Feedback | opposes a change in the system driving the other variable in the other direction; as the issue begins to improve, the need for action diminishes; inherently stable |
| Positive Feedback | not inherently stable; increase in stimulus leads to further increases in the stimulus (baby in womb) |
| Cell Theory | Cells are the smallest structural and functional unit capable of life; cells come from cells, function of cell directly connected to its structure and function dependent of cells |
| Central Dogma | DNA --> RNA --> Protein; DNA --> RNA = Transcription; RNA --> Protein = Translation |
| Transcription | DNA --> RNA = Transcription; performed by the enzyme RNA polymerase |
| Translation | RNA --> Protein = Translation; performed by the ribosome |
| Endoplasmic Reticulum | Rough and Smooth ER |
| Rough ER | --> Protein Synthesis; the presence of numerous ribosome |
| Smooth ER | --> Carbohydrate and Lipid synthesis |
| Protein Traffic | Destinations for many proteins are coded (tagged) with proteins. Extracellular, Membrane, and other organelle proteins --> translated by rough ER ribosomes; cytosolic proteins translated by cytosolic ribosomes |
| Golgi Complex | Interprets the destination code --> packages proteins into vesicles; vesicles --> bubbles of membrane. The content of vesicle is trafficked to appropriate destination |
| Moving out --> exocytosis | proteins destined to leave the cell are secreted; may be constitutive or regulated. proteins are moved to cell membrane in this manner |
| SNAREd | docking proteins; v-SNARE & t-SNARE |
| v-SNARE | vesicle |
| t-SNARE | target |
| Moving in --> Phagocytosis | "Cell eating" --> via pseudopods and the phagosome |
| Moving in --> Pinocytosis | "Cell-drinking" |
| Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis | very specific, utilizing receptors to bind to target; the coat protein clathrin plays important role |
| Endocytosis | Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, then receptor-mediated endocytosis |
| Waste Disposal | Specialized organelles possessing necessary nasties to manage destruction inside cell; detoxification of poisons & destruction of debris; Lysosomes --> hydrolytic enzymes , peroxisomes --> oxidative enzymes and H2O |
| The Recycled | degradation; proteins are in constant turnover, ubiquitin is tag for degradation, proteasome is the disposal, & building blocks of proteins (amino acid) are recycled |
| Mitochondria | Peculiarities; double membrane unique, cristae = high surface area, & standalone DNA source key player in apoptosis |
| Energy Metabolism | Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP); processes that generate ATP & exist in both cytosolic and mitochondrial spaces |
| Citric Acid Cycle in the mitochondria | Krebs Cycle, electron transport chain |
| Glycolysis | is in the cytoplasm |
| Plasma Membrane | thin layer enclosing intracellular contents, mechanical barrier, gateway for passage in and out, maintains differences in composition of ECF and ICF, & where most physiology happens |
| Phospholipid | major components of plasma membrane, hydrophobic tails, hydrophilic heads, & amphipathic (possessing both qualities) |
| Lipid Bilayer | Arrangement; tails face each other (both hydrophobic), heads face watery environment of ECF and ICF, & bulk of membrane is hydrophobic and non-polar |
| Arrangement of plasma membrane | compartments: ECF ad ICF differ greatly, different ionic composition, different pH, & different nutrients |
| Fluid Mosaic Model | Membrane is fluid but tiles can move --> ; some protein migration is possible, membrane function dictated by protein population, & carbohydrates help with identification and barriers |
| Cell-to-Cell Attachments | Desmosomes, Tight Junctions, & Gap Junctions |
| Desmosome | Strong mechanical connection between cells utilizing cadherins on the membrane and filaments in the cytoskeleton of those cells |
| Tight Junction | impedes movement between 2 cells, barrier to migration of proteins along cell surface, & strands of claudin proteins form belts around cells |
| Gap Junction | windows between cells formed by connexon protein, permit passage of small ions/molecules, & important in some excitable tissues as insides of cells are directly connected --> forming and electrical syncytium |
| Membrane Transport | Permeability, oil vs water, & passive vs active |
| Permeability | substances may or may not be able to cross membrane (and that can change) |
| Oil vs Water | Hydrophobic substances can cross membrane with a little effort, hydrophilic substances require assistance |
| Passive | Most crossing of membrane are passive (downhill) |
| Active | uphill crossings require energy (ATP) |
| High to Low | Diffusion --> main method of moving most substances; random process (stuff is bouncing around) & cheap (no energy required), but very slow |
| Factors affecting diffusion through membrane | concentration difference, surface area, hydrophobicity, molecular size, & membrane thickness |
| concentration difference | high to low is only driving force |
| surface area | more membrane area & more opportunity to diffuse |
| hydrophobicity | oil and water don't mix & membrane is primarily oily (hydrophobic) |
| membrane thickness | thicker membrane slow diffusion (distance to travel is greater) |
| salt and water | presence of solute in water affects how the water behaves, and this tendency leads to the equalization of the solution concentrates; semi-permeable membrane indicates that the solute cannot readily cross, but water can |
| osmosis | "where salt goes, water follows" |
| water follows salt | osmotic, higher osmotic, lower osmotic, & same osmotic pressure; water flows from hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution |
| osmotic pressure | tonicity |
| higher osmotic pressure | hypertonic (h2o goes out of cell) |
| lower osmotic pressure | hypotonic (h2o goes into cell) |
| same osmotic pressure | isotonic (h2o goes in and out of cell) |
| Assisted membrane transport (Carrier-Mediated Transport) | proteins in the membrane (carriers) aid the passage of solutes and ions across the membrane that normal would not pass readily & the motion of the substance can be downhill (facilitated diffusion) or uphill (active transpot) |
| Characteristics of Carrier-Mediated Transport | Stereospecificity, Competition, & Saturation |
| Stereospecificity | carrier is choosy in what it transports & mirror images of molecules may be ignored |
| Competition | even though choosy, several substances can be transported beyond the intended one, if similar enough |
| Saturation | the transporters are limited in number; their collective ability to transport is therefore limited |
| Facilitated Diffusion | Ion channel & Carrier Protein |
| Ion channel | protein structure that has punched a hydrophilic path through the lipid membrane & channel allows polar ions to move into or out of the cell down a concentration gradient |
| Carrier Protein | changes its shape (conformation) while embedded in membrane & carrier binds solute on high concentration side and releases on low concentration side following a conformational change |
| Primary Active Transport | Uphill & binding |
| Uphill | energy (ATP) is used to move things uphill (from low to high) by including and energy dependent conformational change to occur |
| Binding | opposite facilitated diffusion --> carrier binds on low concentration side and releases on high concentration side |
| Na-K Pump | in every cell, a protein exists that moves sodium out od call and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients; the result of the amount of Na+ and K+ in ECF and ICF |
| Secondary active transport | Na+ at high concentrations outside of cells (and low inside) allows Na+ to be an indirect source of energy (a driving ion); as Na+ moves into the cell (downhill), something else can move uphill |
| the uphill movement of the substance in secondary transport may be | in the same direction as Na+ (into the cell) --> symport or cotransport or in the opposite direction as Na+ (out of the cell) --> antiport or countertransport |
| components of cells have important roles in | maintaining homeostasis |
| most movement in and out of cells is | diffusion |
| plasma membrane houses proteins that control | composition of inside/outside of cells |
| 2 important ions are critically important to electrical nature of the cell, and energy is expended to ensure their concentration inside and outside of the cell | ECF (outside cell) - sodium has high Na+, potassium has low K+ ; ICF (inside cell) - sodium has low Na+, potassium has high K+ |
| Channels | ions, such as Na+ and K+, require assistance to pass through the membrane, most channels are gated, indicating that they open and close under certain circumstances, & there are other channels always open to allow a bit of leak |
| leak | there is always some leak, some sodium leaking in, some potassium leaking out (following their concentration gradients) |
| Na+ leaking in --> | cell becomes more positive |
| K+ leaking out --> | cell becomes more negative |
| at rest | both the sodium leak and the potassium leak occur under resting conditions, but they leak unevenly; so, at rest, cell is negative and electrically polarized; this represents and electrical potential, a separation of positive and negative charges |
Created by:
alabamadean
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