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human a&p2
2nd lecture, blood and respiratory system
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is blood? | a specialized connective tissue |
| What does blood transport? | Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, nutrients, waste, hormones, water (to and from cells) |
| What does blood regulate? | Temp, pH levels, salt (ion) concentrations, water |
| What does blood protect against? | immune and inflammation response against pathogens protects against blood loss through clotting |
| How many liters of blood is there in the average adult? | Around 5 liters |
| What is the average pH level in a human? | 7 |
| What is the temperature of blood? | 38 degrees celsius |
| What is the average body temperature? | 37 degrees celsius |
| What color is blood in the arteries? | Bright red, oxygenated |
| What color is blood in the veins? | Red-purple, deoxgenated |
| What are the components of blood? | Plasma and Formed Elements |
| What is in plasma? | 91.5% water, 7% proteins Also has nutrients, electrolytes, dissolved gases, organic waste products, hormones |
| What are in formed elements? | Leukocytes, Erythrocytes, Platelets |
| What are the protein components of Plasma? How much of each are in plasma? | Albumin, 60% Globulins, 35% Fibrinogens, 4% Others, 1% |
| What is Albumin? | Transport proteins that are produced by the liver |
| What is Globulin? | ALPHA and BETA globulins transport fat soluble vitamins, lipids, and iron Produced in the liver and by B cell |
| What are fibrinogens? | Family of blood clotting proteins produced by the liver |
| Nutrients | products of digestion absorbed into bloodstream for distribution throughout the body |
| What are the functions of Albumin? | Carry steroid hormones and fatty acids Produce osmotic pressure of blood Blood buffer, helps keep pH levels stable |
| What is the function of nutrients? | Used for energy production (ATP), growth of the body, cell maintenance |
| What do nutrients consist of? | amino acids, monosaccharides (glucose), fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and minerals |
| What are electrolytes? | small, inorganic ions that help regulate and maintain osmotic pressure |
| What do electrolytes consist of? | Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Chloride, Bicarbonate, Phosphate |
| What are dissolved gases? | small amounts (2%) of oxygen that are carried in blood plasma carbon dioxide that are carried are dissolved in blood plasma |
| What are waste products? | waste products of metabolism, carried in blood to organs of excretion include: urea, creatinine, ammonia, uric acid, and bilirubin |
| What are hormones? | chemical messengers secreted by endocrine organs, alter physiological activity of target cell, can be non/proteins |
| Erythrocytes (red blood cells) | 99% of formed elements, most abundant cells found in blood carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around body to and from respiring cells and lungs |
| Leukocytes (white blood cells) | defense against foreign substances (pathogens), also removal of cellular debris |
| Platelets | blood clotting mechanisms |
| Haematopoiesis | the process by which formed elements of blood develop |
| Haematopoiesis during fetal development? | forms blood in developing embyro within yolk sac, as development continues, blood forming elements move into spleen and liver |
| Haematopoiesis during life? | blood and cell formation takes place in red bone marrow, where stem cells undergo cell division, differentiate into cells that give rise to formed elements of blood |
| Haematopoietic Stem Cell | capacity to reproduce, proliferate, differentiate all formed elements of blood arise from multipotent stem cells in red bone marrow |
| Progenitor cells are either: | unipotent or multipotent |
| What does unipotent mean? | Can only give rise to one type of cell |
| What does multipotent mean? | Restricted to cell lineage |
| Erythropoiesis | production of red blood cells |
| Leukopoiesis | production of white blood cells |
| Process of Erythropoiesis? | Pluripotent stem cell, Proerythroblast, Erythroblast, Reticulocyte, RBC |
| How long do red blood cells live for? | Around 120 days |
| When does the nucleus leave the cell during erythropoiesis? | Right before the reticulocyte stage, right before the RBC enters the blood stream |
| What can leukocytes differentiate into? | Myeloblasts, Monoblasts, and Lymphoblasts |
| What do myeloblasts differentiate into? | Basophils, Eosinophils, and Neutrophils |
| What do monoblasts turn into? | Monocytes (life span of a few months) |
| What do lymphoblasts differentiate into? | T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, natural killer cells (life span from a few days to 20 years) |
| What do proerythroblasts turn into? | RBCs |
| What are the hematopoietic growth factors? | Erythropoietin (EPO), Thrombopoietin (TPO), and Cytokines |
| What are erythropoietins (EPO)? | glycoprotein hormone synthesized/secreted by kidneys and liver in response to hypoxia stimulates proerythroblasts to create RBCs at a faster rate |
| Hypoxia | insufficient oxygen |
| What are thrombopoietins (TPO)? | synthesized and secreted by liver stimulates development of megakaryocytes into platelets (thrombocytes) |
| What are cytokines? | small glycoproteins, include interleukins synthesized/secreted by red bone marrow cells, endothelial, leukocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts increase production progenitor cells, also phagocytes, B/T cells |
| Process of EPO | tissue hypoxia -> kidneys secrete EPO into blood, bone marrow increases production of RBC, RBC numbers rise, increased blood oxygen carrying capacity reverses tissue hypoxia |
| What is haemoglobin? | molecules consisting of globin protein, 4 polypeptide chains, organic molecule heme with iron binds to oxygen molecules, delivers oxygen throughout the body |
| RBC life cycle | RBC matures from erythro/reticulocytes (7 days) circulates (120 days), passed through liver spleen red bone marrow phagocytized, broken down in liver and spleen HB split into heme and globin for recycling later on |
| What determines blood types | glycoprotein and glycolipids antigens on the outer surface of RBC |
| Rh agglutinogen | determines Rh (positive or negative) blood group |
| Haemolysis | RBC will rupture and leak haemoglobin and cause kidney failure when there are infections/bacteria/pathogens |
| Transfusion reaction | occurs when blood transfusions are not compatible |
| Anaemia | decrease in oxygen carrying capacity of blood due to low RBC count or low HB smaller, paler RBC |
| Polycytemia | high RBC count |
| Leukocyte size compared to Erythrocytes? | larger than RBC, less abundant (numbers increase when there is an infection) |
| Neutrophils | make up to 50-70% of WBCs, most abundant multi-lobed nucleus (3-5 lobes) small evenly distributed granules lilac/lavender cytoplasm |
| What are the first cells at site of inflammation? | WBCs |
| Eosinophils | 2-4% of WBCs bi-lobed nucleus, large round granules orange-red cytoplasm color |
| Basophils | least abundant, 1% bi/tri-lobed nucleus, round granules blue-purple cytoplasm enhance inflammation, elicit allergic reactions |
| Lymphocytes | 20-30% of WBC large round nucleus light blue cytoplasm, dark purple nucleus |
| T lymphocytes role | cell mediated immunity attacking virus infected cells, fungi, cancer cells, bacteria |
| B lymphocytes role | antibody mediated immune response, produce antibodies against antigens to destroy bacteria |
| Natural killer cells role | attack tumor cells and virus infected cells |
| Monocytes | 2-8% WBC large, up to 3 times the size of RBC horseshoe-shaped nucleus |
| Platelet | for blood clotting, small disc shaped megakaryocyte cell fragment no nucleus, 8-11 days lifespan |
| Leukopenia | less WBC |
| Leukocytosis | excess WBC |
| Leukaemia | absurd proliferation of WBC, imbalance in production of cells in red bone marrow |
| Haemostasis | the process by which blood loss is prevented after tissue injury |
| Stages of Haemostasis | 1. vascular spasm 2. platelet plug formation 3. coagulation (blood clotting) |
| Vascular spasm | contraction of smooth muscle in the blood vessel wall constricts damaged vessel, slowing blood loss |
| Platelet plug formation | aggregation of platelets as a temporary seal against blood loss |
| Stages of platelet plug formation | 1. adhesion, platelets stick to exposed collagen 2. release reaction, clump and become activated 3. aggregation, stick to growing platelet mass, accumulate at site of blood loss |
| Coagulation | clot created, blood cells trapped within protein fibrin threads |
| Intrinsic prothrombin activator pathway | activated by blood trauma, blood in contact w exposed collagen |
| Extrinsic prothrombin activator pathway | activated by tissue/cell trauma, protein tissue factor is released from damaged cells into the blood |
| Vitamin K | required by liver for synthesis of clotting factors no vitamin K can lead to uncontrolled bleeding due to no clot formation |
| Prostacyclin | created and released by endothelial cells and WBC inhibits platelet adhesion (so not too much) |
| Anticoagulants | inhibit blood clotting, antithrombin |
| Thrombosis | when vessel that are not ruptured are clotted clots (thrombus) can form in blood vessel due to damaged lining of endothelial cells due to trauma, infection, etc. |
| Embolism | thrombus that breaks away from side of vessel and travels through blood stream as embolus when lodged in blood vessel, blocks flow of blood causes infarction |
| Thrombocytopenia | low platelet numbers |
| Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) | clots and fibrin excess clotting |
| Haemophilia | inherited clotting disorder, idk some royal family lol theyre famous for it |
| Ventilation | delivery of O2 to the lungs, expulsion of both CO2 and H2O out of the lungs |
| Gas exchange | diffusion of O2 into the bloodstream, diffusion of CO2 out of the bloodstream |
| Blood pH | regulation of acid base levels of blood |
| Air preparation | filtering, warming, humidifying inspired air |
| Vocalization | speech, melody from vibration of vocal chords |
| Olfaction | smell, using olfactory receptors |
| Protection and defense | protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration and temperature change, defending body against inhaled pathogens |
| Upper respiratory tract | nose/mouth, pharynx and larynx |
| Lower respiratory tract | trachea, bronchial tree, lungs |
| When you breathe in, the diaphragm...? | The diaphragm lowers |
| When you breathe out, the diaphragm...? | The diaphragm goes up |
| What is each lung protected by | a double membrane called the pleural membrane |
| Nasal cavity has | anterior nares (nostrils) vestibule palate (bone and muscle |
| Vestibule | covered in hair/mucous membrane, filters, warms, moistens mucous membrane that covers top of nasal cavity contains sensory cells that detect odor |
| Palate | made of bone and muscle, separates from oral cavity and nasopharynx |
| Pharynx | separates between ESOPHAGUS and LARYNX |
| Nasopharynx | connects nasal cavity to oropharynx separated from oral cavity by soft palate contains pharyngeal tonsils |
| Oropharynx | between soft palate and upper border of epiglottis contains palatine, lingual tonsils |
| Laryngopharynx | between larynx and terminates at level of cricoid cartilage by becoming continuous with esophagus |
| Larynx | voice box! cartilaginous structure |
| Epiglottis | "lid" of larynx, 2 arytenoid cartilages |
| Thyroid | Adam's apple, protects vocal folds |
| Cricoid | units with trachea |
| Trachea | 2 principle bronchi cartilage rings anteriorly united by fibroelastic membrane |
| Principal (primary) bronchi | incomplete rings of cartilage anteriorly united by fibroelastic membrane right vertical, shorter, wider left horizontal, longer, thinner |
| Secondary bronchi | branches of primary bronchi one for each lobe of lungs; 2 left and 3 right |
| Tertiary bronchi | bronchopulmonary segments (10RIGHT, 8LEFT), branch into bronchioles |
| Bronchioles | made of fibroelastic membrane and smooth muscle, usually do not contain cartilage controls resistance to airflow and distribution of air in the lungs |
| Terminal bronchioles | smooth muscle, devoid of cartilage branch into respiratory bronchioles |
| Alveoli | tiny thin walled air sacs w rich blood supply walls are one cell thick, capillaries surround them gases diffuse across distance of only 2 cells thick |
| The internal surface of alveolus is covered in... | alveolar fluid, allows oxygen from the air to dissolve into it |
| What is alveolus made of | surfactant (septal cell) decreases surface tension in alveoli also contains macrophages |
| Lungs | in thoracic cavity each suspended in pleural cavity on either side of the heart uneven in size (due to the heart) |
| What are lobes? How much does each lung have? | Left 2 lobes (superior & inferior) Right 3 lobes (superior, middle, inferior) |
| Pulmonary arteries | pathway for the lungs to be supplied with deoxygenated blood |
| Pulmonary veins | pathway for oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart |
| Hilum | where principal bronchi, pulmonary/bronchial vasculature all enter or exit the lungs |
| Visceral Pleura | innermost layer of the lungs membranes that adheres closely to surface of lungs, cannot be separated from lung surface |
| Parietal Pleura | outermost layer of the lungs membranes that lines the throacic wall, diaphragm |
| Pleural cavity | space between the visceral and parietal pleura |
| Compliance | ability of the lungs to stretch, elasticity is an opposing force to compliance |
| Diaphragm | divides the thorax and abdomen |
| What do the muscles do during inhalation | Lungs expand (pressure decrease), contracts the muscles of inhalation Diaphragm responsible for 75%, external intercostal muscles 25% |
| What do the muscles do during exhalation | lungs revert back (pressure increase), relaxes muscle of inhalation, air moves out |
| What factors affect pulmonary ventilation? | Surface tension of alveolar fluid, lung compliance, airway resistance |
| Surface tension of alveolar fluid | forces created between an air fluid barrier |
| Surfactant | fluid produced by type 2 alveolar cells that lower surface tension of alveolar fluid and reduces effort needed to inflate the alveoli |
| What are the four major pulmonary volumes | Tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, inspiratory reserve volume |
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