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Immune System
Bold Terms
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| immunity | The body’s ability to protect itself |
| pathogens | any substance capable of causing disease |
| antigens | Immunogens that react with products of the immune response |
| immunogens | substances that trigger the body's immune response |
| cytokines | protein signal molecules released by one cell that affect the growth or activity of another cell |
| contact-dependent signaling | occurs when surface receptors on one cell recognize and bind to the surface receptors on another cell |
| innate immunity | rapid response; present from birth; not specific to any one pathogen; begins within minutes to hours. An innate immune response to a pathogen is not remembered by the immune system and must be triggered anew with each exposure. |
| inflammation | visible on the skin as a red, warm, swollen area, is a classic sign of innate immunity |
| Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) | immune cells(phagocyte) that ingest and digest pathogens, then insert a fragment of the pathogen into a surface protein; The primary APCs are the macrophages and dendritic cells |
| Adaptive immunity | (also called acquired immunity) is directed at particular invaders and is the body’s specific immune response |
| Memory Cells | “remember” their prior exposure to the pathogen and react more rapidly |
| Cell-mediated Immunity | (Adaptive) requires contact-dependent signaling between an immune cell and receptors on its target cell |
| Antibody-mediated Immunity | also known as humoral immunity, uses antibodies, proteins secreted by immune cells, to carry out the immune response. Antibodies bind to foreign substances to disable them or make them more visible to the cells of the immune system |
| 3 Functions of Immune System | It tries to recognize and remove abnormal “self” cells. It removes dead or damaged cells. It protects the body from disease-causing pathogens.. |
| Thymus Gland | Immune tissue that produces lymphocytes (primary lymphoid tissue); sites where cells involved in the immune response form and mature |
| Bone Marrow | A soft tissue that fills the hollow centers of bones; site of hematopoiesis (primary lymphoid tissue); sites where cells involved in the immune response form and mature |
| Encapsulated Lymphoid Tissue | Lymph nodes and spleen; Both spleen and lymph nodes have fibrous collagenous capsule walls and immune cells positioned so that they monitor the extracellular compartment for foreign invaders |
| unencapsulated diffuse lymphoid tissues | are aggregations of immune cells that appear in other organs and tissues of the body; include cells in the skin and the tonsils of the posterior nasopharynx as well as cells associated with mucosal surfaces exposed to the external environment |
| Mucosa-associated Lymphoid tissue (MALT) | |
| Gut-associated Lymphoid tissue (GALT) | immune cells and tissues of the GI tract; lies just under the epithelium of the esophagus and intestines; and clusters of lymphoid tissue associated with the respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts |
| Leukocytes | WBCs; the primary cell type responsible for immune responses |
| extravascularly | outside the vessels |
| 6 types of Leukocytes | (1) basophils in the blood and the related mast cells in the tissues, (2) eosinophils, (3) neutrophils, (4) monocytes and their derivative macrophages, (5) dendritic cells, and (6) lymphocytes and their derivative plasma cells |
| Granulocytes | white blood cells whose cytoplasm contains prominent granules. Granulocytes include the basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils |
| degranulation | the activated leukocyte releases its granule contents by exocytosis |
| Phagocytes | ingest material from the extracellular fluid using a large vesicle and include neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells |
| Basophil | leukocyte that releases histamine, heparin; release chemicals that contribute to inflammation and the innate immune response |
| Mast Cells | a tissue cell that secretes histamine; concentrated in the connective tissue of skin, lungs, and the gastrointestinal tract: locations where they are ideally situated to intercept pathogens; release chem that contribute to inflamma and the innate imm res |
| Eosinophils | leukocytes associated with parasitic infections and allergic reactions; found in the digestive tract, lungs, urinary and genital epithelia, and connective tissue of the skin; releasing toxic enzymes and oxidative substances |
| Neutrophils | WBCs that ingest pathogens and release cytokines; also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (“polys”) and “segs.”; release a variety of cytokines, including fever-causing pyrogens and chemical mediators of the inflammatory response. |
| Monocytes | blood cell that is the parent cell of tissue macrophages, enlarge and differentiate into phagocytic macrophages |
| Macrophages | Tissue phagocytes that develop from monocytes; the primary scavengers within tissues; larger and more effective than neutrophils, ingesting up to 100 bacteria during their life span; also remove larger particles: old red blood cells and dead neutrophils |
| Mononuclear phagocyte system | monocytes in the blood and tissue macrophages |
| Dendritic Cells | antigen presenting immune cells with long, thin processes; macrophage relatives; found in skin and various organs; play a key role in linking innate and adaptive immune responses by displaying bits of foreign antigen that they have ingested and processed |
| Lymphocytes | WBC responsible primarily for the acquired immune response |
| T Lymphocytes (T Cells) | immune cells that bind to and kill their target cells; mature in thymus; attack and destroy virus-infected cells and help regulate other immune cells |
| B Lymphocytes (B Cells) | WBC that secrete antibodies; remain in bone marrow; develop into plasma cells, which secrete antibodies |
| Natural Killer (NK cells) | a type of lymphocyte that apparently attacks certain tumor and virus-infected cells; attack and destroy virus-infected cells as part of the innate response discussed previously |
| Immunoglobulins | synonym for antibody |
| Clone | A group of cells that are genetically identical |
| Self-tolerance | The lack of immune response to cells of the body |
| Self-antigens | will not bind to the body's own components, so those cells that fo not react with self-antigens go on to form clones |
| apoptosis | cell suicide; when these self-reactive lymphocytes combine with self-antigen in the primary lymphoid tissues, they are immediately targeted for destruction |
| Opsonins | molecules (proteins) that coat foreign particles to make them visible “food” (targets) for phagocytic leukocytes (immune cells) |
| Pyrogens | raise body temperature by altering the hypothalamic setpoint |
| Chemotaxins | Molecules that attract phagocytes to a site of infection |
| acute phase proteins | liver proteins that act as opsonin and that enhance the inflammatory response |
| bradykinin | stimulates pain receptors; vasodilator |
| complement | plasma and cell membrane proteins that act as opsonins, cytolytic agents, and mediators of inflammation |
| c-reactive proteins | opsonin that activates complement cascade |
| granzymes | cytotoxic enzymes that initiate apoptosis |
| heparin | an anticoagulant |
| histamine | vasodilator and bronchoconstrictor released by mast cells and basophils |
| interferons (IFN) | cytokines that inhibit viral replication and modulate the immune response; interfere with viral replication by promoting synthesis of antiviral proteins |
| Interleukins (IL) | cytokines secreted by leukocytes to act primarily on other leukocytes; IL-1 mediates inflammatory response and induces fever |
| Kinins | plasma proteins that activate to form bradykinin |
| Lysozyme | an extracellular enzyme that attacks bacteria |
| Membrane attack complex | a membrane pore protein made in the complement cascade |
| perforin | a membrane pore protein that allows granzymes to enter the cell; made by NK and cytotoxic T cells |
| superoxide anion(O2-) | powerful oxidant in phagocyte lysosomes |
| tumor necrosis factor (TNF) | cytokines that promote inflammation and that can case cells to self-destruct through apoptosis |
| Major Histocompatibility Complexes | family of membrane protein complexes encoded by a specific set of genes; proteins combine with peptide fragments of antigens that have been digested within the cell |
| MHC Class 1 molecules | found on the membrane of every nucleated cell of the body |
| MHC Class 2 molecules | found primarily on antigen-presenting cells (APCs), including macrophages and dendritic cells |
| antibodies | made by B lymphocytes (B Cells); proteins that bind antigens and make them more visible to the immune system; immunoglobulins |
| T cell Receptor | membrane receptors of the T cells that bind to MHC- antigen complexes |
| FC Region | stem of antibody molecule that binds to receptors on immune cells |
| hinge region | between the arms and the stem allows flexible positioning of the arms as the antibody binds to the antigen |
| Fab region | each arm of the Y; consists of one light chain and one heavy chain with one antigen-binding site; chains vary widely among different antibodies, giving the antibody its specificity |
| Gamma globulins | name given to the immune globulins of plasma |
| 5 Classes of antibodies (immunoglobulins) | IgG, IgA, IgE, IgM, and IgD |
| IgG | make up 75% of plasma antibody in adults. Some maternal IgGs cross the placental membrane and give infants immunity in the first few months of life. Some IgGs activate complement |
| IgA | antibodies are found in external secretions, such as saliva, tears, intestinal and bronchial mucus, and breast milk, where they bind to pathogens and flag them for phagocytosis if they reach the internal environment. |
| IgE | target parasites and are associated with allergic responses. When mast cell receptors bind with IgEs and antigen, the mast cells degranulate and release chemical mediators, such as histamine |
| IgM | antibodies are associated with early immune responses to a pathogen. IgMs strongly activate complement. They are also the antibodies that react to antigens found on red blood cells. |
| IgD | antibody proteins appear as receptors on the surface of B lymphocytes and help activate the B cells. |
| Two classes of immunoglobulins ______ are secreted as polymers | IgM is made up of five Y-shaped antibody molecules, and IgA has from one to four antibody molecules. |
| the body has evolved in what 3 variety of immune responses? | structure, living conditions and reproduction, susceptibility to drugs |
| PAMPs | pathogen-associated molecular patterns; bind to leukocyte pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and activate responses that attempt to kill or ingest the invader |
| DAMPs | anger-associated molecular patterns; once on site, activated leukocytes secrete their own chemotaxic cytokines to bring additional leukocytes to the infection site. |
| what are the primary phagocytic cells responsible for the initial defense? | tissue macrophages and neutrophils |
| 3 steps of phagocytosis | some pathogens bind directly to phagocyte pattern recognition receptors (PRR) 1. phagocytosis brings pathogens into immune cells. 2. phagosome contains ingested pathogen. 3. lysosomal enzymes digest pathogen, producing antigenic fragments |
| phagosome | the vesicle formed around ingested material during phagocytosis; site of digestion |
| 3 roles of Inflammation for fighting infection in damaged tissue... | (1) attracting immune cells and chemical mediators to the site, (2) producing a physical barrier to retard the spread of infection, and (3) promoting tissue repair once the infection is under control (a non-immunological function) |
| rubor | redness |
| dolor | pain |
| 4 signs of inflammatory response | rubor, dolor, heat, swelling (tumor); all created when activated immune cells release cytokines |
| Naive Lymphocytes | a lymphocyte that has not yet been exposed to its specific antigen |
| clonal expansion | reproduction of one type of lymphocyte following exposure to an antigen |
| Effector cells | carry out the immediate response and then die within a few days |
| Memory cells | lymphocytes responsible for creating stronger and more rapid immune response following second exposure to an antigen; long lived and continue reproducing themselves |
| 3 types of lymphocytes | B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, and natural killer (NK) cells |
| Plasma cells | secrete antibodies, type of lymphocyte |
| primary immune response | immune response that occurs with first exposure to a pathogen |
| secondary immune response | the stronger and more rapid immune response that occurs with the second or subsequent exposure to a pathogen |
| 6 Antibody functions | antibody clumping, inactivation of bacterial toxins, act as opsonins to tag antigens for phagocytosis, trigger degranulation,a ctivate complement, activate B lymphocytes |
| Passive immunity | occurs when we acquire antibodies made by another organism. The transfer of antibodies from mother to fetus across the placenta is one example. Injections containing antibodies are another |
| Active immunity | occurs when the body is exposed to a pathogen and produces its own antibodies, as just discussed. Active immunity can occur naturally, when a pathogen invades the body, or artificially, as when we are given vaccinations containing dead or disabled pathoge |
| What do activated t lymphocytes develop into? | cytotoxic T (tc cells), Helper T (th cells), regulatory T cells (tregs) |
| cytotoxic T cells | attack and destroy virus-infected cells |
| helper t cells | influence other immune cells |
| regulatory t cells | suppress excessive immune responses from B cells and other types of T cell |
| cell mediated immunity | immune reactions that require t lymphocytes to come in contact with the antigen |
| Fas | a “death receptor” protein on the target cell membrane that is linked to the apoptosis enzyme cascade. |
| The entry of bacteria sets off several sets of interrelated reactions.... | the complement system, phagocytes, the adaptive immune response, initiation of repair |
| allergy | an inflammatory immune response to a nonpathogenic antigen |
| allergen | an antigen that is typically not harmful to the body; triggers an allergic reaction |
| Immediate hypersensitivity reactions | are mediated by antibodies and occur within minutes of exposure to allergens |
| Delayed hypersensitivity reactions | are mediated by helper T cells and macrophages and may take several days to develop |
| human leukocyte antigens (HLA) | name for classification of human MHC proteins |
| Pathologies of the immune system generally fall into one of three categories: | incorrect responses, overactive responses, or lack of response |
| incorrect responses | If mechanisms for distinguishing self from nonself fail and the immune system attacks the body’s normal cells, an autoimmune disease results. |
| overactive responses | Allergies and hypersensitivity reactions are conditions in which the immune system creates a response that is out of proportion to the threat posed by the antigen. |
| Lack of response | Immunodeficiency diseases arise when some component of the immune system fails to work properly. |
| autoimmune disease | the immune system creates antibodies against the body's own tissues |
| immune surveillance | theory that cancer cells develop regularly but are usually detected and destroyed by the immune system |
| Neuroimmunomodulation | the ability of the nervous system to influence immune function |
| The two classic stress responses are... | (1) the rapid, neurally mediated fight-or-flight reaction, and (2) the elevation of adrenal cortisol levels with associated suppression of the immune response |
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