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Lymphatic & Immune
Chapter 16 Hole's Anatomy and Physiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The lymphatic system returns what to the cardiovascular system? | excess extra cellular fluid |
| Which system of the body provides immunity, and aids in the digestion of fats? | the lymphatic system |
| Where are masses of lymphocytes found? | lymph nodes |
| what is the basic function of a lympocyte? | fight infectious agents |
| What are the microscopic, closed-ended tubes extending into interstitial space of the lymphatic sys called? | lymphatic capillaries |
| How do lymphatic capillaries recieve tissue fluid? | through their thin walls |
| What is formed by the merging of lymphatic capillaries? | lymphatic vessels |
| How do lymphatic vessels compare to veins? | their walls are similar but thinner, and have valves that prevent backflow |
| What are the characteristics of lymphatic vessels? | thin walls, have valves which prevent backflow of lymph |
| What do larger lymphatic vessels lead to? | lymph nodes and then merge into lymphatic trunks |
| What is the function of lymphatic trunks? | drain lymph from large body regions |
| What are the two ducts which lymphatic trunks lead to? | collecting ducts: thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct |
| Where do collecting ducts empty into? | subclavian veins |
| Where does tissue fluid originate? What is it made of ? | from plasma, includes water, and dissolved subs that have passed through the blood capillary wall |
| What is tissue fluid generally lacking? | large proteins |
| How do smaller proteins get into tissue fluid? | filtered out of blood capillaries into interstitial spaces |
| What is the result of these smaller tissues filtering into the interstitial spaces? | the colloid osmotic pressure of the tissue fluid increases |
| How does lymph form? | increasing hydrostatic pressure in interstitial spaces forces some tissue fluid into lymphatic capillaries - that is lymph |
| What is the function of lymph formation? | prevents accumulation of excess tissue fluid which leads to edema |
| Lymph is under a relatively low hydrostatic pressure, therefore it may not flow readily without what? | external aid - muscle contraction |
| In addition to smooth and skeletal muscle contraction, what other body function moves lymph? | low pressure in thorax created by breathing |
| What happens when anything interferes with the flow of lymph? | edema |
| What do lymphatic capillaries in the SI do? | absorb and transport lipids |
| What does lymph eventually return to the bloodstream? | small protein molecules and fluid |
| Where do foreign particles in the lymph get transported to? | lymph nodes |
| What is MALT? | mucosa associated lymphoid tissue |
| What is structures is MALT associated with? | digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts |
| What are the lymphatic organs? | lymph nodes, thymus, spleen |
| Describe a lymph node | bean shaped, enclosed in connective tissue - that connective tissue extends into the nodes and subdivides into nodules |
| what do the nodules formed by the connective tissue entering the lymph nodes and subdividing contain? | masses of lymphocytes and macrophages and the spaces through which lymph flows |
| where are lymph nodes located? | they aggregate in groups or chains along the paths of larger lymphatic vessels in the cervical, axillary, supratrochlear and inguinal regions as well as the pelvic, abdominal and thoracic cavities |
| What are the 3 main functions of lymph nodes? | 1) filter potentially harmful foreign particles from lymph before it is returned to the bloodstream 2) contains lymphocytes that act against foreign particles 3)contain macrophages that remove foreign particles from lymph |
| The thymus is an organ of the lymphatic system, what is its form and where is it found? | soft bilobed organ - composed of lymphatic tissue subdivided into lobules (lobules contain lymphocytes) - found within the mediastinum |
| What happens to the thymus after puberty? | it slowly shrinks |
| What kind of cell leaves the thymus to provide immunity? | T lymphocytes |
| What secretion of the thymus stimulates maturation of T lymphocytes? | thymosins |
| Where the Spleen located? What is its form? | upper left portion of abdominal cavity - resembles a large lymph node encapsulated and subdivided into lobules by connective tissue - the spaces in the lobules are filled with BLOOD |
| What does the Spleen filter? What does it contian? | foreign particles and damaged red blood cells from the blood contains many macrophages and lymphocytes |
| What are the various kinds of pathogens the body's immunity protects against? | bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and viruses |
| There are two types of immunity to infection in the body. What are they? | innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific) defenses |
| An innate defense of the body is species resistance. Describe it. | each species is resistant to certain diseases that may affect other species but is susceptible to diseases other species may resist |
| What are the other innate defenses of the body? | mechanical barriers inflammation chemical barriers natural killer cells phagocytosis fever |
| What are the mechanical barriers which act as an innate defense in the body? How do they accomplish this? | skin and mucus membranes prevent entrance hair traps infectious agents fluids such as tears, sweat, saliva, mucus, and urine wash away microorganisms before they can firmly attach |
| What is inflammation? | an internal defense sys which is a tissue response to damage, injury or infection |
| How does inflammation manifest? | localized redness, swelling, heat and pain |
| What is the process of inflammation? | redness from blood vessel dilation, increases blood flow and volume (hyperemia) increased permeability of nearby capillaries, subsequent leakage of protein-rich fluid into tissue spaces causes edema as blood enters from deeper parts of body causes heat |
| Why does pain accompany inflammation? | stimulation of nearby pain receptors |
| Where there is damaged tissue leading to inflammation, there will be what? | WBCs - neutrophils and monocytes causing pus exudates - fibrinogen and other clotting factors create network of fibrin threads fibroblasts to secrete fibers and wall off the area phagocytes to clean up debris from process |
| Which are the first WBCs to arrive at sites of inflammation? then? | neutrophils then monocytes |
| When do monocytes become macrophages? | after passing through the capillary walls (diapedesis) to remove pathogens from surrounding tissues |
| what is pus? | in a bacterial infection resulting mass of WBCs, bacterial cells and damaged tissue |
| What are the chemical barriers of the innate defense sys? | enzymes in gastric juice (pepsin) and tears (lysozyme) low pH in stomach prevents bacterial growth salt concentration in sweat kills bactera interferons defensins collectins complement natural killer cells phagocytosis fever |
| What are interferons? | proteins that lymphocytes and fibroblasts produce in response to VIRUSES and or TUMOR cells |
| How does interferon work? | after being released from virus infected cell binds to receptors on uninfected cells and stimulates them to synthesize anti-viral proteins that block replication of a variety of viruses |
| True or False? Interferon's effect is "non-specific". | true - it stimulates protein building for a variety of viruses |
| True or False? Interferon stimulates phagocytosis? | true |
| True or False? Interferon assists other cells that help resist infections and tumor growth. | true |
| What are Defensins? | antimicrobial biochemicals peptides produced by neutrophils and other types of granular WBCs in the intestinal epithelium, urogenital tract, kidneys and skin |
| What triggers the expression of genes that encode defensins? | recognition of a nonself cell surface or viral particle |
| How do some defensins cripple microbes? | make holes in bacterial cell walls and membranes |
| What is the other antimicrobial biochemical other than defensins? | collectins |
| What do collectins provide broad protection against? | bacteria, yeasts and some viruses |
| how do collectins decipher whether something is a pathogen? | slight differences in the structures and arrangements of sugars that protrude from surfaces of pathogens - both the sugar and the pattern in which they are clustered - like velcro - makes the pathogen more easily phagocytized |
| What is the group of proteins in the plasma and other body fluids which acts as an innate chemical barrier to pathogens? | Complement |
| How does complement activation occur? | classical pathway (rapid) or alternative pathway (slower) |
| what is the classical pathway of complement protein activation? | when complement protein binds to an antibody attached to its specific antigen |
| what is the alternative pathway of complement protein activation | triggered by exposure to foreign antigens |
| What does activation of complement proteins accomplish? | stimulates inflammation, attracts phagocytes, enhances phagocytosis |
| natural killer cells (NK Cells) are a small population of what? | lymphocytes |
| how do NK Cells differ from adaptive defense lymphocytes? | they just go out and destroy |
| How do NK Cells function? | defend body from various viruses and cancer cells by secreting cytolytic (cell-cutting) substances called perforins that lyse cell membranes and destroy the infected cell also secrete chemicals which enhance inflammation |
| What is the process of phagocytosis? | it is an innate defense which removes foreign particles from lymph as it moves from interstitial spaces to bloodstream |
| Where do phagocytes remove particles that reach blood? | those in the blood vessels, tissues of spleen and liver, or bone marrow |
| how do injured tissues attact neutrophils and monocytes? | chemotaxis |
| Which of the 2 most common phagocytes in blood eat big particles? | monocytes, neutrophils -small |
| When monocytes leave the blood they become? | macrophages |
| Macrophages may be free or fixed where? | various tissues, including lymph nodes, spleen, liver, and lungs or attached to inner walls of blood and lymphatic vessels |
| how many bacteria can a macrophage engulf? | up to 100 |
| How many bateria can a neutrophil engulf? | 20 or so |
| What constitutes the mononuclear phagocytic system? | monocytes and macrophages reticuloendothelial system |
| True or False? A fever is a nonspecific defense. | true |
| What causes a fever? | viral or bacterial infection stimulates lymphocytes to proliferate and produce cells which secrete a substance called interleukin-1 (il-1) |
| What does interleukin-1 do? | raises thermoregulatory set point in brain's hypothalamus to maintain higher body temp |
| How does fever indirectly counter microbial growth? | higher body temp causes liver and spleen to sequester iron reducing level in blood - bacteria and fungi require iron for normal metabolism it reduces their reproduction and growth phagocytic cells attack more vigorously when temperature rises |
| Inflammation, chemical barriers, NK Cells, phagocytosis and fever al all what line of defense against pathogens? | second |
| Adaptive (specific) defenses are what line of defense? | third |
| what is the first line of defense? | mechanical barriers |
| what is the main function of the third line of defense? | resistance to specific pathogens or their toxins or metabolic by-products |
| how does the third line of defense recognize the specific pathogens or their toxins or metabolic by products? | by being able to distinguish molecules that are part of the body (self) or those are not (not-self/ foreign) which then elicits an immune response called antigens |
| What cells recognize specific nonself antigens to carry out the adaptive immune response? | lymphocytes and macrophages |
| What is the difference between cellular and humoral immune response? | humoral - circulating antibodies' destruction of pathogens bearing nonself antigens cellular - the body's attack by T Cells and their secreted products on nonself antigens |
| How are oocytes and sperm protected from the immune system? | oocytes develop within follicles in ovary protected by layers of cells sperm develop in testes protected by the blood-testis barrier |
| How do lymphatic cells recognize nonself antigens? | receptors on lymphocyte surfaces |
| What are antigens? | can be proteins, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, or glycolipids |
| Which antigen is best at eliciting an immune response? | large and complex w/ few repeating parts |
| What is the molecule that cannot by itself stimulate an immune response so combines with a larger one allowing it to become antigenic? | haptens |
| How is an antigen formed? | during fetal development, body cells inventory "self" proteins and other large molecules - after inventory, lymphocytes develop receptors that allow them to differentiate between foreign and self antigens |
| Where do lymphocytes originate, and then what? | red bone marrow then they are released into blood |
| Some lymphocytes go to the thymus and mature into what? | T Cells |
| Where do B Cells mature? | in the red bone marrow |
| Where do T and B Cells reside? | lymphatic tissues and organs |
| True or False? Varieties of T Cells and B Cells number in the millions. | True |
| True or False? Members of each variety of T or B Cell only respond to 1 specific antigen. | true |
| what does T Cell stand for? | thymus-derived lymphocyte |
| What percentage of circulating lymphocytes are T Cells? | 70-80% |
| What does B Cell stand for? | bursa of Fabricius - an organ in the chicken where these cells were discovered |
| How much of circulating lymphocytes do B Cells account for? | 20-30% |
| Where are T Cells most abundant in the lymphatic organs and tissues? | lymph nodes, thoracic duct, and white pulp of spleen |
| Where are B Cells most abundant in the lymphatic organs and tissues? | lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and intestinal lining |
| True or False? Each person has millions of varieties of T and B cells. | true |
| Where do the members of each variety of T and B Cells originate from? | a single early cell - the first cell clones itself and so forth |
| What is the significance of T and B cells having only one type of antigen receptor on their cell membranes? | they can only respond to that specific antigen |
| What must happen before a lymphocyte can respond to an antigen? | it must be activated |
| What is the process of T Cell activation? | processed fragments of the antigen be attached to the surface of another type of cell called an antigen presenting cell or accessory cell |
| Dendritic cells are an example of what? | antigen presenting cells |
| how do dendritic cells present antigens? | engulf antigen by receptor-mediated endocytosis, process the antigen and display fragments of it on their cell surfaces |
| What other types of cell are antigen presenting cells? | macrophages and B Cells |
| what is another term for antigen presenting cell? | accessory cell |
| when a macrophage acts as an accessory cell what does it do? | phagocytizes an antigen-bearing agent like a bacterium, digests it and displays the antigens on its cell membrane in association with MHC proteins |
| What is an MHC protein? | a protein from a group of proteins called major histocompatibility complex |
| what is another term for MHC proteins? | human leukocyte antigens HLA (because they were first identified on WBCs) |
| What do MHC antigens do for T Cells? | help them recognize that a newly displayed antigen is foreign |
| There are two classes of MHC antigens. What are they? | Class I are in cell membranes of all body cells except RBCs Class II are on the surfaces of antigen presenting cells, thymus cells, and activated T Cells |
| What do activated T Cells then interact directly with? | antigen resenting cells |
| What is this cell to cell contact called? | cellular immune response, or cell mediated immunity |
| True or False? T Cells provide cellular immune response in which the T Cells interact directly with the antigens or antigen-bearing agents, to destroy them, | True |
| Who makes cytokines? | T Cells and some macrophages |
| What are cytokines? | polypeptides that enhance cellular responses to antigens |
| Two types of cytokines, interleukin 1 and 2 stimulate synthesis of what? | other cytokines from other T Cells |
| Which interleukin helps activate T cells? | interleukin1 |
| interleukin 2 causes T Cells to what? | proliferate |
| What are colony stimulating factors CSFs? | cytokines which stimulate production of leukocytes in the red bone marrow, cause B Cells to grow and mature and activate macrophages |
| T Cells secrete cytokines such as interleukins to do what? | enhance cellular responses to antigens and stimulate proliferation of a T Cell to enlarge is clone |
| True or False? T Cells secrete substances that are toxic to their target cells. | True |
| True or False? An interferon is a type of cytokine. | True |
| What is the function of an interferon? | blocks viral replication, stimulates macrophages to engulf viruses, stimulates B Cells to produce antibodies and attacks cancer cells |
| What do interleukins control? | lymphocyte differentiation and proliferation |
| What is tumor necrosis factor? | a type of cytokine which stops tumor growth, releases growth factors, causes fever that accompanies bacterial infection, stimulates lymphocyte differentiation |
| True or False? There are various types of T Cells. | True |
| A Helper T Cell is a type of T Cell which is activated when what happens? | its antigen receptor combines with a displayed foreign antigen |
| Once the Helper T Cell is activated what occurs? | the helper T Cell proliferates and the resulting cells stimulate a type of B Cell (plasma cell) to produce antibodies specific for the displayed antigen |
| What type of cell is the prime target for HIV? | a subtype of helper T Cell called CD4 |
| What does CD 4 stand for? | the "cluster of differentiation" antigen the T cell bears that enables it to recognize a macrophage displaying a foreign antigen. |
| True or False? CD4 helper T cells have a central role in establishing immunity. | true |
| What do CD4 cells do to establish immunity? | they stimulate B cells and secrete cytokines |
| What type of T Cell recognizes and combines with nonself antigens that cancerous or virally infected cells display on their surfaces near MHC proteins? | cytotoxic T cells |
| Cytokines from which type of T Cell activate the cytotoxic T cell? | helper T cells |
| What do cytotoxic T cells do? | proliferate and bind to the surfaces of antigen bearing cells to release perforin to destroy the cells |
| What is perforin? | a protein that cuts porelike openings in target cells |
| True or False? cytotoxic T Cells are constantly monitoring the body's cells and eliminating tumor cells or cells infected with viruses. | True |
| Which type of T Cell gives rise to the memory T Cell? | cytotoxic T cells - CD8 |
| What is the function of a memory T cell? | to provide for future immune protection |
| When does a helper T cell become activated? Then what does it do? | when it encounters displayed antigens for which it is specialized to react. It then stimulates the plasma cell B Cell to produce antibodies for the specific antigen |
| Which type of T Cell recognizes foreign antigens on tumor cells and cells whose surfaces indicate that they are infected by viruses? | cytotoxic T cells |
| What do cytotoxic T cells secrete? Why? | perforin - to destroy the cells which they recognize as having foreign antigens |
| What do memory T cells accomplish? | immediate response to second and subsequent exposure to the same antigen |
| Which type of leukocyte plays the major role in humoral immune response? | B Cells |
| True or False? A B cell can be activated by encountering an antigen that fits its receptors, or it can be activated when stimulated by a helper T cell. | true |
| Which B cell activation is more common? when it encounters an antigen bearing cell or when it is stimulated by a helper T cell? | helper T cell stimulation is more common activation of B cells |
| What does an activated B cell do? | proliferates and enlarges its clone |
| Some activated B cells differentiate into what? | plasma cells |
| What do plasma cells do? | produce and secrete antibodies |
| what are antibodies? | large globular proteins |
| antibodies are also called? | immunoglobulins |
| What is the form of an antibody? | it is similar in structure to the antigen-receptor molecules on the original B cell's surface |
| What does an antibody do? | combines with the antigen on the pathogen and destroys the pathogen |
| At peak infection a plasma cell can produce and secrete how many antibodies? | 2000/second |
| Antibodies are carried in body fluid to destroy what? | specific antigens or antigen-bearing particles |
| How do T Cells inhibit antibody formation? | release cytokines which inhibit B cell function |
| True or False? A single type of B Cell carries information to produce a single type of antibody. | true |
| True or False? An immune response may include several types of antibodies manufactured against a single microbe or virus. | true |
| True or False? B Cells respond to different antigens on a pathogens surface. | true |
| What is the name of the type of response which involves more than one type of antibody? | polyclonal response |
| What are monoclonal antibodies | researcher developed antibodies which focus on one type of antigen |
| How many different antibodies can the human body manufacture? | over 1,000,000,000 |
| There are 5 steps in antibody production. What are 1-3? | 1. antigen bearing agents enter tissues 2. b cell encounters an antigen that fits its antigen receptors 3. either alone or more often in conjunction with helper T cells the B cell is activated. the B cell proliferates, enlarging its clone |
| There are 5 steps in antibody production. What are 4 and 5? | 4. some of the newly formed B cells differentiate further to become plasma cells 5. plasma cells synthesize and secrete antibodies whose molecular structure is similar to the activated B cell's antigen receptors |
| There are 7 T Cell activities. What are 1-3? | 1. antigen bearing agents enter tissues 2. an accessory cell phagocytizes antigen bearing agent, and its lysosomes digest the agent 3. antigens from digested antigen bearing agents are displayed on the membrane of the accessory cell |
| There are 7 T Cell activities. What are 4 and 5? | 4. helper T cell becomes activated when it encounters a displayed antigen that fits its antigen receptors 5. activated helper T cell releases cytokines when it encounters a B Cell that has previously combined with an identical antigen bearing agent |
| There are 7 T cell activities. What are 6 and 7? | 6. cytokines stimulate the B cell to proliferate, enlarging its clone 7. some of the newly formed B cells give rise to cells that differentiate into antibody secreting plasma cells |
| True or False? There are also memory B cells. | True |
| What constitutes the gamma globulin fraction of plasma proteins? | antibodies |
| What type of bond attracts the pairs of sulfur atoms which link the 4 amino acid chains of an antibody molecule? | disulfide bonds |
| What shape do the 4 amino acid chains of the antibody structure make? | Y |
| There are 2 sets of amino acid chains in an antibody molecule. What are they? | light chains (L chains) and heavy chains (H chains - twice as heavy) |
| What distinguishes the 5 major types of antibodies? | their particular type of heavy chain |
| What part of the antibody structure is specialized to fit the shape of a specific antigen molecule? How does this work? What is this structure called? What is the part that actually binds the antigen? | the end of each heavy and light chain which has variable sequences of amino acids. The antibody contorts, forming a pocket around the antigen. Antigen binding sites. the idiotypes bind the antigens |
| How many types of immunoglobulins are there? Which of these types include most of the circulating antibodies? | 5. immunoglobulin G 80% immunoglobulin A 13 % immunoglobulin M 6 % immunoglobulin D and E are the remainder |
| Where can IgG (immunoglobulin G) be found? | in plasma and tissue fluids |
| What is IgG effective against? What else can it do? | bacteria, viruses, and toxins. activates complement proteins |
| What is an example of an IgG? | Anti-Rh antibodies that can cross the placenta |
| True or False? a newborn has its mother's IgG to protect it against what she is already immune to. | True |
| immunoglobulin A is IgA is found where? | exocrine gland secretions: tears, nasal fluid, gastric juice, intestinal juice, bile, and urine |
| how does a newborn recieve IgA? What does it protect from? | colostrum in milk. digestive and respiratory infections |
| IgM is produced where and how? What else does it do? | plasma in response to contact w/ certain antigens in foods or bacteria activates complement |
| immunoglobulin D is where? | the surface of most B cells , esp infants - acts as antigen receptor and is important in activating B cells |
| IgE is in what secretions? What does it do? | exocrine. allergic responses |
| Which immunoglobulin is in plasma and tissue fluids? | igG |
| Which immunoglobulins are in exocrine secretions? | igA and igE |
| which immunoglobulins are only in plasma, unlike igG which is in plasma and tissue fluids. | igM |
| Which immunoglobulin is found on the surface of B cells? | igD |
| which immunoglobulin defends against bacteria and viruses? | igG and igA |
| which immunoglobulin promotes inflammation and allergic responses? | igE |
| which immunglobulin activates B cells? | igD |
| which immunoglobulin reacts with antigens on some RBC membranes following mismatched blood transfusions? and activates complement? | igM igG also activates complement |
| true or false? antibodies directly attack antigens. | true |
| true or false? antibodies bind to antigens to activate complement | true |
| true or false? antibodies stimulate local tissue changes that are unfavorable to antigen bearing agents | true |
| Agglutination, precipitation, or neutralization are the results of what? | direct attack from an antibody |
| What is the function of activated complement proteins? | they alter infected cells so they become more susceptible to phagocytosis they attract phagocytes they lyse foreign cell membranes |
| What constitutes a primary immune response? | B and T cells first encountering an antigen for which they are specialized to react |
| How long are antibodies produced during a primary immune response? | over several weeks |
| How does the body prepare during a primary immune response for future invasions? | memory T and B cells |
| when memory T and B cells are rapidly responding to a subsequent exposure to an antigen this is a ? | secondary immune response |
| When does a person develop naturally acquired active immunity? | when they encounter a pathogen and have a primary immune response |
| How do you develop artificially acquired active immunity? | get a vaccine with dead or weakened pathogen or part of it |
| If you receive an injection of antiserum or antitoxin what have you acquired? | artificial passive immunity |
| How does a fetus acquire natural passive immunity? | the mother's antibodies passing through the placenta |
| which lasts longer active or passive immunity? | active |
| What is a hypersensitivity reaction? | excessive misdirected immune responses that may damage tissues |
| which type is immediate reaction hypersensitivity? | type 1- an inborn ability to overproduce IgE in response to an allergen |
| Allergic reactions result from what? | mast cells bursting and releasing allergy mediators like histamine |
| Type 2 hypersensitivity is an antibody dependent cytotoxic hypersensitivity. When do these reactions occur? | when blood transfusions are mismatched |
| Immune complex hypersensitivity or Type 3 involves what? | reactions of autoimmunity. an immune reaction against self antigens |
| Type 4 hypersensitivity or delayed reaction hypersensitivity can occur in anyone. What does it do? Why does it happen? | inflames the skin. results from repeated exposure to chemicals or cosmetics |
| What is it called when transplant recipient's immune system reacts against the donated tissue? | tissue rejection reaction |
| True or False? Transplants can occur b/w individuals of different species. | true |
| What types of things help the body accept the foreign tissue of a transplant? | matching cell surface molecules (MHC antigens) of donor and recipient tissues transplanting stem cells from donor using immunosuppressive drugs |
| What attacks the body's tissues in an autoimmune disorder? | autoantibodies |
| Why might an autoimmune disorder occur? | previous viral infection faulty T cell development reaction to a nonself antigen that resembles a self antigen |
| True or False? Retained fetal cells can cause a condition that resembles and autoimmune disorder | true |
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