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Physio Exam 2
Week 5 Info
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are Chemoreceptors? | Receptors sensitive to specific chemicals |
| What do taste and smell affect? | A person's appetite, saliva flow, gastric secretions, and avoidance of harmful substances |
| About how many taste buds do we have? | 10,000 in the lingual papillae |
| What do basal cells do? | Divide and differentiate to continually replace taste receptor cells |
| Why do tastants need to be dissolved? | Dissolved in the mucus to reach taste receptor cells |
| What do pores in the tongue allow? | Allows saliva tastants to contact gustatory/receptor cells |
| What are apical receptors? | They extend to surface (hair/microvilli) |
| What to basal membranes contact and sinapse with? | Primary afferents |
| What are the 5 basic tastes? | -Sweet -Salty -Sour -Bitter -Umami |
| How many taste qualities are there? | 3 |
| What 3 tastes are tranduced by G-protein coupled receptors? | -Umami -Sweet -Bitter |
| What 2 tastes are transduced by ion channels? | -Sour -Salty |
| What other sense had a major contribution to the flavor of food? | Smell |
| Where do the pathways for taste project to? | The gustatory cortex |
| What is Ageusia? | Complete inability to taste |
| What is Hypogeusia? | Reduced ability to taste |
| How is an AP generated in olfaction? | When odor molecules react in mucus |
| Where is smell sensation (olfaction) located? | Olfactory mucosa |
| What do cilia do in olfaction? | Contain receptor proteins that provide binding sites to odor molecules |
| How often are olfactory receptor neurons replaced by new stem cells? | 2 months |
| What is the only system that does not synapse in the thalamus prior to reaching the cortex? | Olfactory system |
| When odorant molecules stimulate odorant receptors and activate G-protein mediated pathway, what happens? | Increase in cAMP, which opens nonselective cation channels |
| How many types of plasma membrane odorant receptors does each receptor cell have? | One type |
| About how many types of olfactory protein/cell receptors are there? | Approx. 1,000 |
| About how many odors can we discriminate? | Approx. 10,000 |
| When are odors detected and discriminated? | When they activate one or more different transduction pathways in parallel in olfactory neurons |
| How many olfactory receptors do humans have? | About 6 million |
| What 2 areas do information from olfactory bulbs travel to? | Olfactory cortex and parts of the limbic system |
| Where do some local neurons in olfactory bulbs cross over to? | Contralateral bulb |
| Axons of second order neurons project to where? | The olfactory cortex on the medial temporal lobe and to areas that are part of the limbic system |
| What does info sent from olfactory cortex to cortex allow? | The conscious perception of odors |
| What is anosmia? | Inability to detect odors |
| What is hyposmia? | Decreased ability to detect odors |
| What is consciousness? | The state of being aware of and responsive to one's surroundings |
| What are the 2 types of consciousness? | 1) States of consciousness 2) Conscious experiences |
| What are the 2 ways to determine state of consciousness? | 1) By behavior; covering the spectrum from maximum attentiveness to coma 2) By the pattern of brain activity (EEG) |
| What is an electroenccephalogram (EEG)? | A record of the state of consciousness as indicated by the electrical activity of the brain. Represents the summed post synaptic potentials (PSPs) or hundreds of thousands of neurons |
| Where does the electrical activity of pyramidal neurons in cortex in response to oscillary synaptic input to? | To cortical neurons from thalamic neurons |
| What is Alpha rhythm in EEG? | Prominent in relaxed adult with eyes closed |
| What is Beta rhythm in EEG? | EEG arousal, prominent when paying attention to external stimulus or thinking hard |
| How does Alpha rhythm progress as we fall asleep? | We go from alpha to progressively higher amplitude, lower frequency rhythms |
| What is Non-REM? | 4 stages with increasing amounts of theta and delta rhythms, then reverses |
| What stages of sleep are referred to as Slow wave sleep (SWS)? | Stages 3 and 4 |
| What sleep period comes after NREM? | REM |
| What is REM sleep? | Higher frequency, lower amplitude rhythm similar to beta rhythm |
| What happens to NREM and REM as the night progresses? | NREM stages drop out and REM periods get longer |
| How many sleep cycles do we have per night and how long are they? | 4-5 sleep cycles of 90-100min per night |
| What is EEG Arousal? | The transformation from alpha to beta during waking state |
| What frequency are Alpha waves during waking state? | 8-12 Hz and larger amplitudes |
| What frequency are Beta waves during waking state? | Greater than 13 Hz with smaller amplitudes |
| What drives the cycles of sleep/wake? | Neurons from reticular activating system release monoamine neurotransmitters throughout the brain, enhancing excitatory synaptic activity |
| What monoamine neurotransmitters are released during sleep/wake cycles? | Norepinepherine, serotonin, and histamine |
| What neuropeptides play an important role in awake state? | Orexins |
| What does the sleep center contain? | GABAergic neurons that release GABA and inhibit monoaminergic neurons and play critical roles in sleep |
| What does sleep deprivation show in people? | Deficiency in memory retention |
| What is a Coma? | Describes an extreme loss in mental function, a sustained loss of the capacity for arousal under vigorous stimulation |
| What is a persistent vegitative state? | Sleep-wake cycles are present but the patient is unaware of his or her surroundings |
| What is Selective attention? | Both voluntary and reflex mechanisms are involved, avoiding the distraction |
| What is Habituation? | Responses to repeated irrelevant stimuli progressively decreases, depression of synaptic transmission in the involved pathway |
| What part of the brain plays an important role in selective attention? | Brainstem |
| What monoaminergic RAS nuclei located in the pons is critical for selective attention? | Locus Ceruleus |
| What is the synaptic relay station for most ascending sensory pathways? | Thalamus |
| How does thalamus transfer info in selective attention? | Inputs info from cortex and brainstem to the thalamus selectively modulate snesory information |
| What are Primary motivated behaviors? | Behaviors related directly to survival/homeostasis |
| What are Secondary motivated behaviors? | Indirect relation, influenced by habit, learning, intellect, and emotions |
| Is it hard to distinguish between primary and secondary motivations? | yes |
| What is the Mesolimbic dopamine pathway? | The reward pathway, the neurotransmitter is dopamine |
| What does Dopamine do? | Mediates the brain reward systems and motivation |
| What are Emotions? | Complex feeling states that have mental, physical, and behavioral components |
| What parts of the brain are central to most emotional states? | The amygdala and the region of association cortex on the lower surface of the frontal lobe |
| What part of the brain is essentially for fear? | Amygdala |
| What are Altered states of consciousness? | Unusual sensations, such as those occurring with mind-altering drugs and certain diseases |
| What is overactive that causes Schizophrenia? | Mesocortical dopamine pathways are overactive |
| What kind of drugs help reduce symptoms in Schizophrenia? | Drugs blocking dopamine receptors |
| What is Psycholoical dependence? | Experienced as a craving for a substance and an inability to stop using the substance at will |
| What is Physical dependence? | Requires one to take the substance to avoid withdrawal, which is the spectrum of unpleasent physiological symptoms that occur with cessation of substance use |
| What is Learning? | The acquisition and storage of information as a consequence of experience |
| What is Memory? | The relatively permanent storage form of learned information |
| What is Memory encoding? | The neural processes that change an experience into the memory of that experience |
| What is Declarative memory? | The retention and recall of conscious experiences that can be put into words |
| What is Procedural memory? | The memory of how to do things. This is the memory for skilled behaviors independent of conscious understanding |
| What is Working memory? | Short-term memory, registers and retains incoming information for a short time after its input--seconds to minutes. |
| What is Consolidation? | The process by which short-term memories become long-term memory |
| In Declarative memory, where is short-term located? | Hippocampus and other limbic system structures |
| In Declarative memory, where is long-term located? | Many areas of association cortex |
| In Procedural memory, where is short-term located? | Widely distributed |
| In Procedural memory, where is long-term located? | Basal nuclei, cerebellum, and sensorimotor cortex |
| What is Long-term potentiation (LTP)? | Certain synapses undergo long-lasting increase in their effectiveness when they are heavily used |
| What is Long-term depression (LTD)? | Similar to LTP, but the effectiveness of synaptice contacts between neurons is decreased |
| Long-term memory formation involves what type of processes? | Processes that alter gene expression |
| What are the functions of the respiratory system? | Provides the body with O2, about 4L of fresh air per minute, regulates blood pH, and regulates chemical messengers |
| Many of the functions of the pulmonary system requires collaboration from what other system? | Cardiovascular |
| What is internal respiration? | O2 and CO2 exchange between cells and their environment |
| What is the respiratory zone? | Where the exchange between the alveolar gasses and the blood takes place |
| What is the conducting zone? | Consisting of the conducting airways: the exterior of the body with the respiratory zone. (Its volume: the anatomic dead space) does not contain alveoli and does not participate in gas exchange |
| Does the conducting zone have diffusion or no diffusion? | No diffusion |
| Does the respiratory zone have diffusion or no diffusion? | Diffusion |
| What does the conducting zone consist of? | Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles |
| What does the respiratory zone consist of? | Respiratory bronchioles (occasional alveoli), alveolar ducts (completely lined with alveoli), and alveolar sacs |
| What is the total surface area of the respiratory zone? | 70m2 |
| What cells line aveolar ducts and sacs? | Type I and II alveolar (epithelial) cells |
| What do type II cells secrete? | Surfactant |
| Are type I or type II cells more abundant and have very flat shape needed to mediate gas exchange? (Do more diffusion)? | Type I cells |
| What cells exchange gases with alveoli across a shared basement membrane? | Capillary endothelial cells |
| What keeps the lungs free of dust and bacteria? | Mucus escalator |
| What do cells down to and including the respiratory bronchioles do/contain? | Secrete mucus and have cilia that continuously beat and move mucus upward toward the pharynx; the mucus is then swallowed |
| What are the symptoms of CF? | -Makes breathing harder -Bacteria grows in thick, sticky mucus -Infections -Scarring of lung tissue |
| Is muscular activity required for the end-expiratory position? | No |
| What is the intrapleural space filled with? | Fluid |
| As long as no air enters the intrapleural space, what can the 2 pleuras do? | Slide over one another but remain in close contact |
| What does the surface tension between pleural layers that line the intrapleural space cause? | Cause the lungs and thoracic wall to remain in close proximity during inspiration and expiration |
| What is the intrapleural pressure in the end-expiratory position? | Slighty negative(sub-atmospheric) |
| When are the pleural at an equilibrium position in between? | When they are held together |
| What happens during chest surgery when the parietal pleura is cut? | Air enters the intrapleural space |
| What pressure is always sub-atmospheric and keeps the lungs open between breaths? | Pip (-4mm Hg) |
| What is ventilation? | Bulk flow of air across a pressure differential (Palv-Patm) that is modulated by resistance of the air passageway |
| With inspiration, what happens to the intrapleural pressure? | Becomes more negative |
| What is tidal volume (TV)? | The air volume entering or leaving the lungs with a single breath |
| What is the diaphragm? | Thin, dome-shaped layerof muscle, inserted into the lower ribs, innervated by the phrenic nerves |
| Inspiration is produced by... | Lowering of the diaphragm and contraction of some of the intercostal muscles which raises the ribs |
| As inspiration is occurring, what is happening to volume of thorax and lung? | Increase in both thorax and lung volume |
| As a result of Boyle's law... | There is a decrease in the alveolar (intrapulmonary) pressure which becomes sub atmospheric, so air flows into lungs |
| What is called a subatmospheric pressure pump? | The lungs |
| What is expiration produced by? | The elastic recoil of the lungs and the chest wall |
| When expiration occurs, what results from it? | Decrease in lung volume, increase in alveolar pressure, adn airflow out of the lungs |
| What happens when a person breathes more vigorously? | Contraction of the diaphragm becomes stronger and the abdominal muscles contract during expiration |
| What is activated during diaphragmatic breathing? | The parasympathetic nervous system |
| What is the most relaxing way of breathing? | Diaphragmatic breathing |
| What is activated during thoracic breathing? | The sympathetic nervous system |
| What is compliance? | The ability of the lung to be stretched open V/P |
| What is static lung compliance? | The change in volume for any given applied pressure |
| Does a structure have to have a higher or lower compliance to be inflated more easily? | Higher compliance |
| What is low compliance? | Lungs are stiff and difficult to expand to a given volume |
| What kind of pulmonary compliance do people with CF have? | Decrease in pulmonary compliance |
| What kind of pulmonary compliance do people with COPD/Emphysema have? | Increase in pulmonary compliance due to the loss of alveolar and elastic tissue |
| What are the symptoms of people with emphysema? | Decreased elastic recoil of the lungs, increased airway resistance, decreased total are available for diffusion, and ventilation--perfusion inequality |
| What are the determinants of compliance? | Connective tissue content and alveolar surface tension |
| What is alveolar surface tension? | Hydrogen bonding in water-filled alveolar sacs. A very strong force |
| What are the 2 forces that oppose inflation of the alveoli? | 1) The elastic recoil of the wall 2) The surface tension of the fluid-air interface |
| What is the Law of Laplace? | P = 2 T/r P= pressure inside alveoli T= Surface tension r= The radius of the alveolus |
| What does surfactant do? | Reduces surface tension, increases lung compliance, less effort required for breathing, and stabilizes lungs |
| Why is surfactant a great equalizer? | It preserves small-size alveoli because it's less diluted there (high concentration) |
| Surface tention (T) in presence of surfactant is as follows... | T(small alveoli)<T(large alveoli) |
| What is atelectasis? | Without surfactant small alveoli tend to collapse and larger ones grow even larger |
| Surfactant decreases more tension P in what size alveoli? | The smallest alveoli |
| What are the symptoms of respiratory distress syndrome of a newborn? | Stiff lungs, have atelectasis, and extreme effort is required for breathing, which leads to exhaustion |
| What is the law of Poiseuille (airway resistance (R))? | R= (8/pi) * (nL/r^4) n= viscosity of the air L= length of the airways r= radius of the airways |
| What are sypmtoms of asthma? | Airway smooth muscle contracts, thick mucus is secreted, and airway resistance is increased |
| What are symptoms of chronic bronchitis? | Chronic inflammation of the bronchi, excessive mucus production, and airway resistance is increased |
| What is the starting point of a breath called? | End-expiratory position |
| How do you calculate Inspiratory capacity (IC)? | Tidal volume (TV) + Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) |
| How do you calculate functional residual capacity (FRC)? | Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) + Residual volume (RV) |
| What is functional residual capacity (FRC)? | The volume of the lungs in the end-expiratory position |
| What is vital capacity (VC)? | The maximum volume of air an individual can exhale, starting from a maximal inspiration |
| What are the 2 ways vital capacity can be calculated? | VC= ERV + TV + IRV VC= IC + FRC - RV |
| What is total lung capacity (TLC)? | The total volume of gas contained in the lungs at the end of a maximal inspiration |
| What is a spirometer? | A device for measuring the amount of air breathed in and out |
| What can a spirometer measure? | TV, IRV, ERV, and combinations of these volumes |
| Why can residual volume (RV) not be measured with a spirometer? | Because RV cannot be exhaled. Because of this FRC and TLC also cannot be measured with a spirometer |
| What can RV and TLC be measured with? | Helium dilution technique |
| What is total (minute) ventilation? | The total volume inhaled or exhaled per minute |
| What is the minute ventilation equation? | RR * TV RR= Respiratory rate in breaths/min TV= Tidal volume |
| What is alveolar ventilation? | The total volume of fresh air reaching the alveoli per minute |
| What is alveolar ventilation equation? | RR*(TV-DSV) RR= Respiratory rate in breaths/min TV= Tidal volume DSV= Dead space volume in ml |
| To increase alveolar ventilation, is increasing the TV or increasing the RR more effective? | Increasing the TV is more effective than increasing the RR |
| At the beginning of exercise, is the TV or rate of breathing increased more? | The TV is increased more than the rate of breathing |
| What is alveolar dead space? | Refers to the portion of alveoli that lack healthy blood supply and thus cannot participate in gas exchange |
| What is wasted ventilation? | The sum of anatomic and alveolar dead spaces which collectively represents physiological dead space |
| What is Dalton's law? | In a mixture of gases, each gas has a partial pressure which is the pressure of that gas if it alone occupied the volume of the mixture |
| What is Henry's law? | The amount of a given gas that dissolves in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid |
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