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Chemistry of Life 2
Macromolecules and Polymers
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Macromolecules | Very large organic molecules with very high molecular weights |
| Polymers | Molecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits called monomers |
| Monomers | Small macromolecules that link together to form polymers |
| Polymerization | Joining monomers by dehydration synthesis |
| Dehydration synthesis | OH group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen from another, producing water as a byproduct |
| Hydrolysis | Water molecule ionizes into OH and H groups; the covalent bond linking one monomer to another is broken, and OH goes to one monomer while H is added to another |
| Anabolism | Endergonic synthesis reactions that produce protein or fat using dehydration synthesis |
| Endergonic | energy-storing |
| Catabolism | Exergonic decomposition reactions that break covalent bonds and produce smaller molecules using hydrolysis |
| Exergonic | energy releasing |
| Organic chemistry | Study of compounds containing carbon |
| Four categories of carbon compounds | Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids |
| Monosaccharides | Carbohydrate; simple sugar |
| Disaccharides | Carbohydrate; 2 monosaccharides |
| Oligosaccharides | Carbohydrate; 3-20 monosaccharides |
| Polysaccharides | Carbohydrate; generally considered 50 or more monosaccharides linked together |
| Glycogen | Energy storage polysaccharide in animals; made by liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina for energy needs |
| Starch | Energy storage polysaccharide in plants; only significant digestible polysaccharide in human diet |
| Cellulose | Structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls; fiber in our diet |
| Conjugated carbohydrate | A carbohydrate covalently bound to a lipid or protein |
| Glycolipids | Composes the external surface of the cell membrane |
| Glycoproteins | Composes the external surface of the cell membrane, is present in the mucus of respiratory and digestive tracts |
| Proteoglycans | Gel that hold cells and tissues together, forms gel filler in umbilical cord and eye, lubricates joints, gives cartilage its tough, rubbery texture |
| Carbohydrates | Serves as main energy provider in body, among other functions |
| Lipids | Hydrophobic molecules that have more calories per gram |
| Fatty acid | Chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms; Carboxyl group (COOH) on one end, methyl group (CH3) on the other, hydrogen bonded along the sides |
| Saturated fatty acid | Carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen |
| Unsaturated fatty acid | Contains C=C double bonds without hydrogen |
| Polyunsaturated fatty acid | Contains multiple C=C double bonds |
| Essential fatty acids | Fatty acids that the body cannot make on its own, obtained from diet |
| Triglycerides | Three fatty acids covalently liked to three carbon-alcohol groups called glycerol; neutral fats that act as energy storage, insulation, cushioning and shock absorption, binds organs together |
| Oils | Liquid triglycerides |
| Fat | Solid triglycerides |
| Trans-fatty acids | Two covalent C-C single bonds angle in opposites on each side of C=C double bond; raises risk of coronary heart disease |
| Cis-fatty acids | Two covalent C-C single bonds angle on the same side on each side of C=C double bond |
| Phospholipids | Amphiphilic molecules similar to triglyceride, but one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group that is in return linked to another functional group; structural foundation of cell membrane |
| Eicosanoids | 20 carbon compounds derived from arachidonic acid that functions like a hormone between cells |
| Prostaglandins | Produced in all tissues; has a role in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, and blood vessel diameter |
| Steroid | Lipid with 17 carbon atoms in four rings |
| Cholesterol | "Parent" steroid from which other steroids are synthesized, like cortisol, progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, and bile acids |
| Anabolic steroids | Hormone derived from testosterone that stimulates muscle growth and masculinizes the body; can treat anemia, breast cancer, osteoporosis, and prevents muscle loss |
| High-density lipoprotein | "Good Cholesterol"--lower ration of lipid to protein, and may help prevent cardiovascular disease |
| Low-density lipoprotein | "Bad Cholesterol"--high ration of lipid to protein, contributes to cardiovascular disease |
| Lipoprotein | Complex of cholesterol, fat, phospholipid, and protein |
| Protein | A polymer of amino acids |
| Amino acid | Central carbon with an amino (NH2) group, a Carboxyl (COOH) group, and a radical (R) group; R group determines properties |
| Peptide | Any molecule composed of two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds, named for the number of amino acids |
| Peptide bond | Joins the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of next |
| Conformation | Unique, three dimensional shape of protein crucial to function |
| Denaturation | Extreme conformational change that destroys function, such as extreme heat and pH |
| Primary structure | Protein's sequence of amino acids which is encoded into genes |
| Secondary structure | Coiled or folded shape held together by hydrogen bonds |
| Alpha helix | Spring-like shape |
| Beta sheet | Pleated, ribbonlike shape |
| Tertiary structure | Further bending and folding of protein into globular and fibrous shapes |
| Globular proteins | Compact tertiary structure well suited for proteins embedded into membrane and proteins that must move around in body fluid |
| Fibrous proteins | Slender filaments better suited for fixed positions like muscle contraction and strengthening the skin |
| Quaternary structure | Association of two or more separate polypeptide chains |
| Prosthetic group | Non-amino acid moiety contained by conjugated proteins |
| Heme moiety | Four complex iron containing rings contained by hemoglobin |
| Ligand | Any hormone or molecule that reversibly binds to a protein |
| Keratin | Tough structural protein found in the integumentary system |
| Collagen | Durable protein contained in deeper layers of skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth |
| Carrier proteins | Transports solute particles to other side of membrane |
| Enzyme | Protein that catalyzes a reaction; named for substrate with -ase as the suffix; reusable and reacts with speed |
| Motor proteins | Molecules with the ability to change shape repeatedly |
| Antibodies | Proteins that prevent pathogens from infecting cells, targeting them for destruction |
| Scaffolding proteins | Holds cells and tissues together so they do not fall apart from their place |
| Substrate | Substance an enzyme acts upon |
| Activation energy | Energy needed to get reaction started, lowered by enzymes |
| Cofactors | Inorganic partners of enzymes, some bind to enzyme and induce a change in its shape, activating it |
| Coenzymes | Organic cofactors derived from water-soluble vitamins, they accept electrons from an enzyme in one metabolic pathway and transfer them to another |
| Components of nucleotides | Nitrogenous base, sugar, one or more phosphate groups |
| ATP | Adenosine, Ribose, three phosphate groups; most important energy transfer molecule |
| Phosphorylation | Addition of free phosphate group to another molecule, carried out by kinases |
| Guanosine Triphosphate | Another nucleotide involved in energy transfer, donates phosphate group to other molecules |
| Cyclic adenosine monophosphate | Formed by removal of both second and third phosphate groups from ATP, formation triggered by hormone binding to cell surface, second messenger that activates metabolic effects in cell |
| Deoxyribonucleic acid | DNA; 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long, constitutes genes |
| Ribonucleic acid | Comes in many types (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA), 70-10,000 genes long, carries instructions for synthesizing and assembling proteins |
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