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Criminology
Criminology Ch 6+
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| antisocial personality (sociopathic or psychopathic personality) | traits (hyperactivity, impulsivity, hedonism, and inability to empathize) make prone to deviant behavior and violence |
| arousal theory | people try to maintain a preferred level of arousal, but vary in how the process sensory input, A need for high levels of environmental stimulation may lead to aggressive, violent behavior patterns. |
| latent delinquency | disposition to commit antisocial acts because of an id-dominated personality that renders an individual incapable of controlling impulsive, pleasure-seeking drives. |
| primary prevention programs | seek to treat personal problems before they manifest themselves as crime (eg substance abuse clinics) |
| focal concerns | Values, such as toughness and street smarts, that have evolved specifically to fit conditions in low-class environments. |
| general strain theory (GST) | multiple sources of strain interact with an individual's emotional traits and responses to produce criminality |
| institutional anomie theory | anomie pervades modern culture because the drive for material wealth dominates and undermines social and community values. |
| middle-class measuring rods | standards by which authority figures, such as teachers and employers, evaluate lower-class youngsters and often prejudge them negatively |
| reaction formation | irrational hostility evidenced by young delinquents, who adopt norms directly opposed to middleclass goals and standards that seem impossible to achieve. |
| social disorganization theory | branch of social structure theory that focuses on the breakdown of institutions such as the family, school, and employment in inner-city neighborhoods. |
| status frustration | culture conflict experienced by low-class youths because social conditions prevent them from achieving success as defined by the larger society. |
| strain | the anger, frustration, and resentment experienced by people who believe they cannot achieve their goals through legitimate means. |
| strain theory | branch of social structure theory that sees crime as a function of the conflict between people's goals and the means available to obtain them |
| commitment to conformity | a strong personal investment in conventional institutions, individuals and processes that prevents people from engaging in behavior that might jeopardize their reputation and achievements. |
| culture conflict | Result of exposure to opposing norms, attitudes, and definitions of right and wrong, moral and immoral. |
| deviance amplification | process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of the mainstream of society and locks them into an escalating cycle of deviance apprehension, and criminal self-identity. |
| differential association theory | people commit crime when their social learning leads them to perceive more definitions favoring crime than favoring conventional behavior |
| diversion programs | promote rehabilitation that removes offenders from the criminal justice process, thus avoiding the stigma of a criminal label |
| drift | movement in and out of delinquency, shifting between conventional and deviant values. |
| moral entrepreneur | person who creates moral rules, which thus reflect the values of those in power rather than any objective, universal standards |
| neutralization techniques | methods of rationalizing deviant behavior, such as denying responsibility or blaming the victim |
| neutralization theory | law violators learn to neutralize conventional value and attitudes, enabling them to drift back and forth between criminal and conventional behavior. |
| primary deviance | a norm violation or crime with little or no long-term influence on the violator |
| reflective role taking | assuming an identity based on the actual or perceived appraisals of others |
| restitution | permitting an offender to repay the victim or do useful work in the community rather than face the stigma of formal trial and a court-ordered sentence. |
| retrospective reading | the reassessment of a person's past to fit a current generalized label |
| self-control | a strong moral sense that renders a person incapable of hurting others or violating social norms. |
| social control theory | people commit crimes when the forces that bind them to society are weakened or broken |
| social process theory | criminality is a function of people's interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society |
| stigmatize | to apply negative labelling with enduring effects on the person's self-image and social interactions |
| critical criminology | an umbrella term to describe a number of theories based on the idea that crime is a result of social conflict |
| critical feminism | approach that explains both victimization and criminality among women in terms of gender inequality, patriarchy, and the exploitation of women under capitalism |
| instrumental Marxist | sees criminal law and the criminal justice system as capitalist instruments for controlling the lower class |
| left realism | approach that sees crime as a function of relative deprivation under capitalism and favors pragmatic, community-based crime prevention and control |
| Marxist criminology | crime is a product of the capitalist system: also called radical criminology |
| peacemaking | approach that considers punitive crime control strategies to be counterproductive and favors the use of humanistic conflict resolution to prevent and control crime |
| power | the ability of persons and groups to control the behavior of others, to shape public opinion, and to define deviance. |
| power-control theory | the view that gender differences in crime are a function of economic power (class position, one-versus two-earner families), and parental control (paternalistic versus egalitarian families) |
| preemptive deterence | efforts to prevent crime through community organization and youth involvement |
| radical criminology | crime is a product of the capitalist system; also called Marxist criminology |
| restorative justice | using humanistic, nonpunitive strategies to right wrongs and restore social harmony |
| sentencing circle | a peace-making technique in which offenders, victims and other community members are brought together in an effort to formulate a sanction that addresses the needs of all |
| social reality of crime | the main purpose of criminology is to promote a peaceful, just society |
| structural Marxist | sees criminal law and the criminal justice system as means of defending and preserving the capitalist system |
| surplus value | the difference between what workers produce and what they are paid, which goes to business owners as profits |
| adolescent-limited | offender who follows the most common criminal trajectory, in which anti-social behavior peaks in adolescence and then diminishes |
| authority conflict pathway | to criminal deviance that begins at an early age with stubborn behavior and leads to defiance and then to authority avoidance |
| control balance theory | a latent trait theory that attributes deviant and criminal behaviors to imbalances between the amount of control that the individual has over others and that others have over him or her |
| covert pathway | to a criminal career that begins with minor underhanded behavior, leads to property damage, and eventually escalates to more serious forms of theft and fraud |
| desistance | the process through which an individual's criminal behavior subsides, or abruptly stops |
| developmental criminology | a branch of criminology that examines changes in criminal career over the life course. |
| developmental theory | the view that criminality is a dynamic process, influenced by social experiences as well as individual characteristics. |
| general theory of crime (GTC) | A latent trait theory that modifies social control theory by integrating concepts from biosocial, psychological, routine activities, and rational choice theories. |
| integrated theory | a complex, multifactor theory that attempts to blend seemingly independent concepts into a coherent explanation of criminality |
| interactional theory | attributes criminal trajectories to mutual reinforcement between delinquents and significant others over the life course-family in early adolescence, school and friends in mid adolescence, and social peers and one's own nuclear family in adulthood. |
| latent trait | a stable feature, characteristic, property , or condition, such as defective intelligence or impulsive personality, that makes some people crime-prone over the life course |
| latent trait theory | the view that criminal behavior is controlled by a "master trait," present at birth or soon after, that remains stable and unchanging throughout a person's lifetime. |
| life-course persister | one of the small group of offenders whose criminal career continues well into adulthood. |
| life-course theory | focuses on changes in criminality over the life course; developmental theory |
| overt pathway | to a criminal career that begins with minor aggression, leads to physical fighting, and eventually escalates to violent crime. |
| problem behavior syndrome (PBS) | a cluster of antisocial behaviors that may include family dysfunction, substance abuse, smoking, precocious sexuality and early pregnancy, educational underachievement, suicide attempts, sensation seeking, and unemployment, as well as crime |
| prosocial bonds | socialized attachment to conventional institutions, activities, and beliefs |
| pseudomaturity | characteristic of life-course persisters, who tend to engage in early sexuality and drug use |
| social capital | positive relations with individuals and institutions, as a successful marriage or a successful career, that support conventional behavior and inhibit deviant behavior |
| social development model (SDM) | a developmental theory that attributes criminal behavior patterns to childhood socialization and poor antisocial attachments over the life course |
| turning points | critical life events, such as career and marriage, that may enable adult offenders to desist from crime. |
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