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Physio Ch. 16
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| the absorptive state is when you | absorb nutrients from the Gi tract |
| absorptive state means that the nutrients are available for...and the excess nutreitns are... | use by cells...stored in cells for later use (liver muscles adipose) |
| postabsorptive state happens...and is when the.. | between meals...Gi tract is empy |
| during postabsorptive state, the nutrients... | are taken from body stores and made available for cells |
| absorptive state maintains...via... | blood nutrient levels...glucose, tryglycerides and amino acids |
| glucose can be used... | in all cells |
| the liver is good at | taking up glucose and converting it to glycogen |
| the addipose tissue converts glucose to | fats |
| muscle tissue does what with glucose | stores it as glycogen |
| triglycerides in the absortpive state: the adipose tissue is good at | picking up triglycerides |
| fatty acids get converted to | adipose |
| glycerol goes to the | liver |
| amino acids in the absoprtive state go to | liver and muscle tissue (buildmore muscle proteins) |
| post state maintains...via.. | blood glucose levels...glucose sources and glucose sparing |
| glucose sources include | glycogenolysis in the liver and muscles, lipolysis in adipose tissue and gluconeogensis in the liver and kidneys |
| gluconeogenesis gets glucose from...which are all... | pyruvate & lactate, & glycerol & amino acids...non carb sources |
| glucose sparing is when...are used as.. | fatty acids...energy sources instead of glucose |
| glucose sparing: fat metabolism is not | possible in nervous system so ketones in the blood can be used in nervous system instead |
| fasting does what | decreases synthesis |
| fasting involves | glycogenolysis, lipolysis and gluconeogenesis (primarily in the liver) |
| prolonged fasting involves | kidney gluconeogenesis and ^ lipolysis |
| ^ lipolysis during prolonged fasting > | ^ blood ketones ^ nervous system use of ketones |
| insulin comes from | pancreatic islets, B cells |
| in the absorptive state, you..so that you can... | ^ insulin...store nutrients and prevent hyperglycemmia (^ blood sugar levels) |
| in the post state you...which means... | dec insulin...release nutrients |
| cell activity in the absorptive state...are stimulated to... | liver, cardiac and skeletal muscle and adipose tissue...take up glucose and fats |
| skeletal muscles synthesize | ketones, glycogen and amino acids |
| adipose tisue synthesizes | triglycerides |
| cell activity in the post state involves | liver, cardiac and skeletal muscle and adipose tissue releasing nutrients |
| insulin w/ receptor interaction signals...which results in... | transduction pathway ...insertion of glucose transporters |
| lack of insulin w/o receptor interaction signals...which results in... | signal transduction pathway broken...glucose transporters taken up by cell |
| regulation of insulin secretion involves | plasma glucose levels, plasma amino acid levels, incretins, parasymp and inhibition of b cells |
| regulating insulin via plasma glucose levels is a...and the normal range is... | negative feedback system...60-120 mg/dL whole blood |
| plasma amino acid regulation of insulin is also a... | negative feedback system |
| incretins include | GIP and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) |
| incretins are produced in the...and released in response to... | small intestine...eating |
| incretines do...which means they... | feedfoward...release insulin before plasma glucose levels rise |
| parasympathetic stimulation of b cells: stimulation is due to...so you... | eating...release insulin |
| parasymp stim of b cells is a...so you.. | feedfoward system..release insulin before plasma glucose levels rise |
| inhibition of b cells: stimulation of the...and you increase... | sympathetic system...epinephrine from adrenal medulla |
| inhbition of b cells does what | inhibits insulin release |
| glucagon is made by | pancreatic islet A cells |
| glucagon is primarily active in the...and it prevents... and it has no known effect on... | liver..hypoglycemia...adipose cells |
| glucagon increases | glycogenolysis, gluconeogensis and production of ketones |
| regulation of glucagon secretion happens via | plasma glucose levels, sympathetic stimulation and ^ epinephrine from adrenal medulla |
| plasma glucose levels for regulating glucagon secretion is a | negative feedback system |
| sympathetic system for regulating glucagon secretion involves | stimulating a cells |
| ^ epi from the adrenal medulla to regulate glucagon involves the | stimulation of a cells |
| epi and the symp system have...effects..including... | indirect...inhibiting B cells and stimulating A cells |
| epi and symp inhibit B cells > | dec insulin release > dec storage |
| epi and symp stimulate a cells > | ^ glucagon release |
| epi and symp also...including | direclty stimulate cells...liver, skeletal msucles and adipocytes cells |
| liver cells do | glycogenolysis and gluconeogensis |
| skeletal muscles do | glycogenolysis |
| adipocytes do | lipyolysis |
| regulation of epi and symp involves..which is a... | plasma glucose levels...neg feedback system |
| cortisol comes from the...and can either be | adrenal cortex...normal levels or stress levels |
| normal levels of cortisol means cortisol is a...and it allows the...to...which maintains.. | permissive hormone...liver, adipose...function in post state...normal enzyme levels (blood sugar, amino acids and fatty acids) |
| stress levels of cortisol have...such as... | direct effects...reducing cell sensitivity to insulin, ^ gluconeogenesis, protein catabolism and lipolysis and dec muscle/adipose uptake of glucose |
| growth hormone comes from the...and at normal levels:....excess levels:... | anterior pituitary...protein production and growth...direct effects |
| excess levels of growth hormone lead to...which means... | anti-insulin effects...keeping nutrients in blood |
| anti-insulin effects of excess levels of growth hormone increase..and decrease... | gluconeogenesis, protein catabolism and lipolysis...muscle and adipose uptake of glucose |
| exercise increases...which then increases... | energy demand...liver glycogenolysis, liver gluconeogenesis and adipocyte lipolysis |
| exercise: reaction is similar to...so you see a decrease in... | fasting...plasma glucose |
| during exercise, the dec in plasma glucose leads to... | dec plasma insulin and increase plasma glucagon |
| dec plasma glucose > increase plasma glucagon increases... | symp and epi action as well as cortisol and growth hormone action |
| neural response to exercise is to | increase symp and epi action (not due to dec plasma glucose) |
| exercise: ^ glucose uptake and utilizationg by muscle cells is the opposite of...and the muscle contraction stimualtes... | fasting...insertion of glucose transporters in cell membrane (imp for diabetes mellitus) |
| diabetes ="..."...and diuresis is... | running through...large flow of water w/ low osmolarity |
| mellitus - "..." and leads to... | sweet..osmotic diuresis |
| osmotic diuresis resulsts in | solute loss (glucose) w/ accompanying water loss |
| osmotic diuresis also results in...which is when... | glucosuria: glucose in the urine...>180 mg/dl of whole blood |
| osmotic diuresis is caused by a lack of | insulin or insulin receptors |
| insipidus - "..." and leads to... | non-sweet...water diuresis |
| water diuresis is | solvent loss w/o accompying solute loss |
| water diuresis involves... | vasopressin as the issue |
| central diabetes insipidus | not making vasopressin |
| nephrogenic diabetes insipidus | not responding to vasopressin |
| type I diabetes mellitus is also called | insulin dependent diabetes or juvenile diabetes |
| type I involves lacking the ability to...because of... | produce insluin from the pancreas..autoimmune destruction of B cells |
| type I has...and ... | low plasma insulin levels...high plasma glucose levels |
| high plasma glucose levels in type I involves the inability to...and continued... | absorb glucose (no glucose transporters installation)...liver glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and lipolysis |
| type I diabetes causes people to have | osmotic diuresis, diaetic ketoacidosis and other problems |
| osmotic diuresis is a consequence of...and happens when | both types of diabetes...glucose transport maximum (tmax) is surpassed and water follows the solute |
| osmotic diuresis is when the...which is called... | filtered load > tmax > substance present in urine...glucosuria |
| glucosuria is when | plasma [glucose] > 180 mg/dl |
| diabetic ketoacidosis is increased...>...>... | lipolysis > ^ plasma ketones > ^ ketones in urine and H in plasma |
| other problems with type I are increased...which leads to.. | na loss and additional water loss... decreased plasma volume > dec arterial pressure and blood flow |
| type II diabetes mellitus is also called | non-insulin dependent diabetes or adult onset (except now we have childhood obesity) |
| type II involves | decreased receptor sensitivity to insulin |
| type II usually has...but...which involves... | normal plasma insulin levels...high plasma glucose levels...inability to absorb glucose, continued liver glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and lipolysis |
| role of obesity in type II involves...and the new hypothesis is... | insulin resistance...adipocyte hormone resistan |
| resistan resists...and is produced in... | insulin...repsonse to excess adipose tissue |
| resistan does | downregulation of glucose transporters in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue |
| other factors of type II | defective B cells |
| defective B cells happens because of..and it means you don't... | no effect of insulin...increase insulin secretion at high plasma glucose levels |
| treatment for type II | diet and weight reduction (can be reversible) and exercise |
| exercising increases | number of glucose transporters in skeletal muscle cells to keep fat tissues active |
| hypoglycemia is ...usually in the... | low plasma glucose concentration ... post state |
| potential causes of hypoglycemia are | excess insulin and poor post state regulation |
| excess insulin causes hypoglycemia: which involves....excess..and increased... | b cell tumor...insulin injection and too strong response...insulin secretion |
| what treats increased insulin secretion in type II ? | sulfonylureas |
| poor post state regulation happens in...and involves... | liver disease..inactive a cells and dec glucagon secretion |
| liver disease means there is no... | return of nutrients to blood stream (since liver is a storage place for nutrients) |
| poor post state regulation in hypoglycemia involves a dec in | cortisol and glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis |
| symptoms of hypoglycemia | symp system responses and lack of glucose to brain |
| symp system responses include... | nervousness, ^ HR, sweating and anxiety |
| lack of glucose to the brain causes..and...because of... | headache, confusion, dizziness, lack of coordination...convulsions, unconsciousness and coma...you're not providing your brain w/ enough utrients to metabolize atp for energy |
| increased plasma cholesterol: sources of cholesterol | dietary cholesterol and cholsterol synthesis |
| dietary cholesterol comes from | animal fats - saturated fats, and transfatty acids |
| cholesterol is used in the...and also its used for... | cell membrane...steroid hormone production |
| cholesterol synthesis happens in the | GI tract and mainly the liver |
| LDL stands for...and optimal levels of LDL are... | low density lipoproteins...< 100 mg/dl |
| LDL is a...that... | cholesterol carrier...delivers cholesterol to cells and keeps it in the circulatory system |
| LDL: genetic component is...and it decreases... | familial hypercholestrolemia...LDL uptake by cells - LDL and cholesterol remain in plasma |
| HDL stands for...and optimal levels should be... | high density lipoproteins...>40 mg/dl |
| HDL is a...that.. | cholesterol carrier...removes cholesterol |
| HDL delivers cholesterol to... | the liver for secretion (bile) to get it out of the circ. system and also to the steriod producing cells |
| LDL:HDL ratio should be...and a...is associated with... | 2:1...lower ratio...lower risk of cardiovascular diseases like atherosclerosis |
| ratio in men is...and women.. | 3.6...3.2 |
| total energy expenditure of the body = | heat produced + work + energy stored |
| heat is produced as a result of...such as... | energy conversion...glucose > ATP |
| energy conversions involve...which are... | 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics...energy isn't created/destroyed just converted and conversion degrades some energy to heat |
| work involves...and can either be... | force and distance...external work and internal work |
| external work involves...by using... | moving objects outside the body or your body itself...skeletal muscles |
| internal work involves...via 5 things... | moving objects within the body...skeletal muscles, smooth muscles in GI, cardiac muscle, protein transporters and metabolism |
| energy stored is stored | chemically |
| metabolic rate is the | energy expenditure per unit time (calories/hr or kcal/24 hr) |
| MR is measured in | calories |
| kcall = ...=... | calorie (C)...1000calories |
| kcal is the amt of | heat required to raise temp of 1L of h2o 1 degree celsius |
| calorie = ...and is the amt of | 1/1000kcal...heat required to raise temp of 1 mL of h2o 1 degree celsius |
| which is more common kcal or calorie | calorie |
| BMR is the | calorie use necessary to remain alive |
| BMR is measured while you are | mentally and physically at rest, in the post state (12 hours of no food) and comfortable temp |
| factors affecting BMR and MR involves | thyroid hormone, epi, food induced thermogenesis and muscle activity |
| thyroid hormone TH and epi both have...which involves the ability to... | calorigenic effect...increase BMR bec cells are metabolically active |
| food-induced thermogenesis involves a...due to... | rapid increase in MR...processing of food by the liver |
| muscle activity involves...that can dramatically... | skeletal muscle...^ MR |
| if something is...then it will... | voluntary...effect MR |
| energy stored = | energy intake - (heat produced + external work) |
| energy not used for...is... | heat production or work...stored in adipose tissue usually bec its the most efficient storage and it concentrates the energy |
| control of food intake involves...such as... | negative feedback systems...long term and short torm |
| long term control of food intake involves...which is a.. | leptin..hormone from adipose tissue |
| leptin does what | inhibits hypothalamus neuropeptide Y which decreases food intake |
| obesity means you have a reduced response to | leptin or a mutated leptin |
| short term control of food intake involves...which involve... | brain and hunger...satiation signals, positive and neg reinforcement and ghrelin |
| satiation signals include...which increases 3 things | insulin (tells body we're full)...body temp, GI stretch and chemoreceptor action and CCK |
| pos and neg reinforcement happens via | food smell, taste, texture and stress |
| ghrelin is a...that stimulates or inhibits?... | GI hormone...stimulates hypothalamus neuropeptide Y and increases food intake |
| being overweight and obese both...like... | increae health risks...hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart disease, diabetes and sleep apnea |
| heat disease is | fat on and in heart/coronary arteries |
| BMI is found by | wgt (kg)/ heigh^2 (m) |
| a BMI...is overweigh and a BMI...is obese | > 25...> 30 |
| it is not known at what BMI...and confounding factors include... | health risks start increasing...sedentary lifestyle and dietary habits |
| patterns of...affect BMI | fat deposition (apple is worse than pear) |
| decreasing BMI can | reduce health risks |
| genetic factors for overweight and obesity include | thrifty genee and survival as well as leptin |
| thrifty genes are good at | conversion rate and metabolism |
| leptin causes overweightness and obesity bec of either...or... | genetic mutation (inactive leptin produced)...leptin insensitivity (normal leptin production but reduced response) |
| weight set points involve | altering calorie intake and exercise |
| altering calorie intake is when the body attemps to | maintain weight within a range |
| if you increase calorie intake then...but if you decrease calorie intake... | ^ metabolic expenditure (including BMR)...dec metabolic expenditure (including BMR) |
| exercise does what | increases caloric expenditure in order to alter set point |
| short term effects of exercise | immediate calorie ependiture so theres less for storage |
| long term effects of exercise | lowers weight set point and increases metabolic demand w/ increasedmuscle mass and BMR |
| humans are...which means we... | homeothermic..maintain a constant body temp w/i a homeostatic range |
| body temp can't exceed...and is usually problematic at... | 43 deg cels...41 deg cels |
| advantage of being homeothermic | it allows enzymes to be functional at a predicatble rate |
| core body temp variation can be seen in...and involves... | oral vs rectal...activity level, circadian rhythm and progesterone levels in women |
| mechanisms of heat loss and gain | radiation, conduction, convection and evaporation |
| radiation involves...and can be either | electromagnetic waves coming off of something...gain or loss via the air |
| conduction happens via...and can be either | physical touch...gain or lass |
| convection involves...and usually... | moving air/water (wind chill)...is loss but can gain |
| evaporation requires...and you... | energy input from the body...convert water from liquid to gaseous phase |
| evaporation...converted | 600 kcal/L of H20 |
| evaporation is heat...and is dependent on... | loss only...humidity levels |
| temp regulating reflexes: goal is to | maintain core body temp |
| sensory component of temp regulating reflexes involves...either.. | thermoreceptors...peripherally or centrally |
| peripheral thermoreceptors are located in the...and provide... | skin...feedforward regulation |
| central thermoreceptors are located in...and provide... | internal organs and hypothalamus...neg feedback system |
| integration component of temp regulating reflexes involve the.. | hypothalamus and cerebral cortex |
| hpothalamus involves the...and | symp system...motor system which is involuntary responses to regulate temp |
| cerebral cortex regulates temperature..via.. | voluntarily...motor system |
| heat production involves...which is actually.. | skeletal muscle activity...involuntary |
| skeletal muuscle activity regulating heat production involves | shivering thermogenesis and nonshivering thermogenesis in infants |
| shivering thermogenesis is controlled through the...and there is no... | hypothalamus...work only heat production |
| nonshivering thermogenesis in infants-age 2 involves...and activation of... | ^ epi and symp stimulation > ^ BMR > ^ heat production...brown adipose in infants |
| heat loss or gain via...so the..serves to regulate heat exchange | radiation, conduction and convenction...skin |
| the skin serves to regulate heat exchange by modifying | peripheral blood flow, surface area, clothing and surroundings |
| modifying peripheral blood flow involves | vasoconstriction when youre cold and vasodilating when youre hot |
| modifying surface area happens via | huddling or extension |
| modifying clothing involves | additional insulation |
| heat loss via evaporation is either | insensible water loss and sweating |
| insensible water loss is...via.. | passive/involuntary loss...respiration and permeable skin covering |
| sweating is... | active water loss: active secretion via sweat glands |
| sweating involves...and its effeciency is dependent upon... | symp stimulation (ACh neurot instead of NE)...relative humidity |
| temperature acclimatization is when you | physiologically adjust to temperature |
| temp acclimatization involves...such as... | changes in mechanics of temperature regluation...starting to sweat sooner and adjust sweat composition |
| sweat composition means you | increase aldosterone secretion which is responsible for sweat secretion |
| increasing aldosterone secretion means your sweat glands...and you | reabsorb more na...increase sweat water content and decrease sweat na content |
| fevers raise..while... | temperature set point...maintaining a higher core temperature |
| maintaining a higher core temperature during a fever involves...that... | endogenous pyrogens...reset thermal set point |
| endogenous pyrogens are released from...and also released in response to... | activated macrophages...stress and trauma |
| endogenous pyrogen release is inhibited by | aspirin |
| fevers also involve...where you... | chills...increase thermal set point > detect body as cold > ^ heat production |
| chills maintain | core temperature at new set point until reset to normal |
| fevers must involve a way to..via... | prevent excessive fever and resetting set point...endogenous cryogens |
| endogenous cyrogens bring..via... | temperature down...vasopressin neurotransmitter |
| advantages of a fever is to | kill pathogens and prevent their reproduction |
| hyperthermia is when the...and the most common example is... | core temperature increases w/o change in set point...exercise |
| exercising causes...so eventually... | ^ heat gain > ^ reflexive heat loss...heat gain is equivalent to heat loss |
| exercise results in | core temp elevation |
| heat exhaustion is the result of...and you can...due to... | active heat loss system...collapse...hypotension : dec MAP (bec you lose soo much water) |
| MAP= | co x tpr |
| heat exhaustion leads to | dec plasma volume (CO) due to ^ sweating and dec TPR due to peripheral vasodilation |
| heat stroke involves a | nonfunctioning heat-regulation system |
| heat stroke involves an...which causes you to... | elevated core temperature...collapse, seize and be unconscious |
| heat stroke may follow | heat exhaustion |
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handrzej
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