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Physio Ch. 13
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| the lungs include the...and is the organ for | alveoli and capillaries...gas exchange (functional organ) |
| alveoli is made of | simple squamous epithelium and basement membrane |
| capillaries are made of | endothelium and basement membrane |
| o2 and co2 only have to diffuse through | 2 thin layers of cells into/out of body |
| airways include...and they seperate at the | upper and lower airways...esophagus and epiglottis |
| upper airway is for | food and air |
| lower airway is for | air only |
| respiratory or bronchial tree includes two zones | conduction and respiratory |
| conduction zone moves | air in and out - no gas exchange between lungs and blood |
| repsiratory zone is where | gas exchange happens and this is where o2 can now diffuse into capillaries and co2 can diffuse out |
| the lungs monitor...defend agaisnt... and facilitate...and also assist with | blood pH...microbes (cilia escalator)....cheical messengers...movement/dissolve of clots |
| alveoli can either be | type I or type II |
| type I alveoli cells do | exchange |
| type II alveoli produce...which helps... | fluid surfactant..reduce water tension (need lining of lungs moist for exchange but this cuases alveoli collapsing and sticking together) |
| alveoli have...that do... | macrophages...protection from inhaled pathogens |
| alveoli are the..of the lungs | functional units |
| capillaries pick up | 02 and transport it |
| the conduction zone includes the | respiratory escalator (mucus production and cilia) through the respiratory bronchioles |
| respiratory escalator uses | mucus and ciliated epithelium |
| respiratory zone is where | external gas exchange occurs |
| additional functions of the conduction zone include | low resistance pathway for air flow, moisten/warm air (turbinate bones in nose), phonation/vocal cords |
| the chest wall is also called...and includes.. | chest wall...vertebrae, ribs, sternum, muscles and CT |
| the lungs and thorax include | chest wall, diaphragm, and pleural sac |
| the pleural sac includes 3 things | visceral pleura, parietal pleura, pleural cavity |
| the visceral pleura is on the | lungs |
| the parietal pleura sits against the | chest wall and diaphragm |
| the pleural cavity is the space between...and contains... | visceral and parietal pleura...intrapleural fluid(very thin) |
| steps of respiration include | ventilation, external gas exchange, bulk flow transport, internal gas exchange, bulk flow transport |
| external gas exchange is between | lungs and blood |
| initial bulk flow transport is through | pulmonary veins and systemic arteries |
| internal gas exchange involves the... | blood and systemic tissues |
| internal gas exchange does | cellular respiration |
| second bulk flow transport invovles | systemic veins and pulmonary arteries |
| ventilation includes the | resp. cycle, breathing, inhalation (pressure gradients), exhalation, inspiration/expiration |
| components of bulk flow | air flow, gas pressure and resistance |
| air flow is symbolized as...and is measured in... | F...L/min |
| gas pressure is symbolized as...and is measured in... | P...mm Hg |
| gas pressure is the change in... | pressure between alveoli (alv) and atmosphere (atm) |
| equation for gas pressure | delta P = Palv - Patm |
| Patm = | 0 |
| Palv =..when there is... | Patm...no air movement |
| Palv <...during | Patm...inspiration |
| Palv >...during | Patm..expiration |
| resistance is symbolized as...and is measured as... | R...mm Hg/mL/min |
| R is inversely proportional to | airway radius (smooth mucscles bronchoconstrict/dilate) |
| R is directly proportional to | airway length |
| the most changeable factor for resistance is | airway radius |
| equation for flow was...and now is... | f = delta P/R...F = (Palv-Patm)/R |
| lung vol vs. alveolar pressure introduces | boyles law (P1)(V1)=(P2)(V2) |
| if you ^ lung vol > | dec alveolar pressure |
| reducing Palv > | inspiration |
| dec lung vol > | ^ alveolar pressure which leads to expiration |
| ventilation pressure involves the | primary pressure values at rest (atmospheric, alveolar, intrapleural, transmural pressures) |
| atmospheric pressure: 1 atm =...which is set to... | 760 mm Hg...0 (no movement) |
| alveolar pressure (Palv) at rest w/ no air exchange is | Palv = Patm = 0 mm Hg |
| intrapleural pressure (Pip) = | -4 mm Hg |
| why is intrapleural pressure negative? | to keep the space open |
| transmural pressures include | transpulmonary pressure, chest wall pressure, respiratory system pressure |
| transmural means | across a wall (pressure inside v. pressure outside) |
| transpulmonary pressure is symbolized as... and is measured across the | Ptp...lung |
| Ptp = ...and is the pressure that holds... | Palv - Pip (0-(-x)) = + ...lungs open, opposing recoil |
| chest wall pressure is symbolized as...and is the pressure between... | Pcw...outside body and intrapleural space |
| Pcw =...and it is the pressure that holds... | Pip - Patm...chest wall in and opposing recoil |
| respiratory system pressure is symbolized as...and is the... | Prs...driving force for air flow |
| Prs = | Palv - Patm |
| the most important ventilation pressure is the | respiratory system pressure |
| transpulmonary pressure at rest (Ptp = Palv - Pip) | = 0 - (-4) = 4 mm Hg to pull lung outward and oppose recoil |
| chest wall pressure at rest (Pcw = Pip - Patm) | = -4 - 0 = -4 mm Hg to pull chest inward |
| respiratory system pressure at rest (Prs = Palv - Patm) | = 0-0 = 0 mm Hg - balanced so no movement of air |
| respiratory system pressure is balanced at | end of exhale and start of inhale |
| elastic recoil of lungs opposses | stretch or distortion |
| lungs recoil in what direction...to oppose... | inward...lung over-expansion |
| lungs are held open by...to prevent... | Ptp (which = Palv- Pip)...collapse |
| chest wall recoils in what direction...and this promotes... | outward...lung expansion |
| chest wall is held in by...which prevents... | Pcw (which = Pip - Patm)...excessive expansion |
| importance of an intact intrapleural cavity includes | the transpulmonary pressure - negative pressure opposes both inward and outward recoil |
| if the intraplaural cavity is not maintained closed, then...occurs because... | pneumothorax...there is a balance in pressure between the intrapleural cavity and the atmospher |
| losing pressure in the intrapleural cavity means | there is nothing to oppose recoil and it makes it difficult to re-inflate |
| opening into the intrapleural cavity resulting in pneumothorax happens bec of | stab/gunshot wound or high air pressure that ruptures the lung tissue |
| if air enters the intrapleural cavity during pneumothorax then the Ptp goes to...thereis no...and the lung can... | 0 atm...opposition to lung elastic recoil...collapse |
| during inspiration the thorax volume...which leads to... | ^...dec Pip (gets more negative) |
| the thorax volume increases during inspiration by | contacting the diaphragm vai phrenic nerve and contact inspiratory intercostal muscles (both of which ^ intrapleural space) |
| inspiration results also in an increase in | transpulmonary pressure |
| an increase in transpulmonary pressure pulls...>...>... | against elastic recoil of lungs...^ vol of lungs...dec Palv |
| inspiration results in a dec in | respiratory system pressure ( - Palv - 0 Patm) = air goes in |
| decreasing respiratory system pressure demonstrates the pressure gradient from | atmosphere to alveoli |
| how would a pheumothorax impact inhalation? | can't change internal pressure |
| expiration decreases... | thorax volume and transpulmonary pressure |
| decreasing thorax volume > ...and it relaxes... | ^ PiP (doesn't oppose recoil as much)...the diaphragm and inspiratory intercostal muscles |
| decreaseing the transpulmonary pressure decreases.. | elastic recoil of lungs > dec vol of lungs> ^ Palv |
| expiration increases | respiratory system pressure |
| what is the effect of exercise on the inspiration-expiration cycle - particularly the chest wall and abdominal muscles? | the chest wall will contract/expand more for deeper breaths and the abdominal muscles will increase action to push abdominal organs up for forceful exhalation |
| lung compliance is symbolized as...and the equation is... | CL...CL = change in VL/change in Ptp |
| Change in Ptp = | Palv - Pip |
| ^ CL = | easier to expand lungs (hard to recoil) |
| dec CL = | more difficult to expand lungs |
| determing factors for lung compliance include | lung tissue elasticity, surface tension |
| the surface tension of lungs is naturally...but... | sticky..surfactant reduces surface tension |
| deep breathing stimulates...which.. | type II alveolar cells...^ surfactant release |
| deep breathing stimulates type II alvolar cells and involves | respiratory therapy for post-anesthesia and yawning |
| respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn happens in | premature infants w/ underdeveloped type II alveolar cells |
| respiratory distress syndrom happens bec of a lack of | surfactant - too difficult for them to breathe |
| airway resistance equation | F = change in pressure/R....F = (Palv-Patm)/R |
| if you ^ tube length....if you ^ tube diameter... | ^ resistance...dec resistance |
| factors that can modify airway diameter include | transpulmonary pressure, lateral traction, symp system and inflammatory respones |
| transpulmonary pressure modifies airway diameter during inspiration by... | increasing small airway diameter (due to ^ Ptp) |
| transpulmonary pressure modifies airway diameter during exhalantion by | dec small airway diameter (due to dec Ptp) |
| lateral traction is the...and is done by... | pulling from sides..CT anchoring airways to its surrounding alveolus |
| during inspiration, lateral traction causes | ^ small airway diameter (due to alveolus enlarging) |
| during expiration, lateral traction causes | dec small airway diameter (due to alveolus shrinking) |
| forceful expiration does what | dec airway diameter more |
| sympathetic system modifies airway diameter through | epinephrine and beta adrenergic receptors that relax the smooth muscle |
| inflammatory response modifies airway diameter by producing | leukotrienes in the lungs that contract smooth muscles (bronchitis = inflammation - ^ mucus) |
| disease impacting airway resistance include | asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disase |
| asthma causes | airway chronic inflammation and hyperresponsiveness and bronchoconstriction via smooth muscles |
| bronchoconstrictiveness via smooth muscles in asthma can be cured through | anti-inflammatory drugs, bronchodilators and block bronchoconstrictors |
| bronchodilators include | epinephrine and epinephrine mimics |
| block bronchoconstrictors involve the...and they block.. | parasymp...muscarinic cholinergic receptors |
| people with chornic obstructuve pulmonary disease are sometimes called | blue bloaters |
| COPD increases...which results in... | resistance...emphysema and chornic bronchitis |
| emphysema is the | collapsing of small airways |
| chronic bronchitis is the | accumulation of mucus |
| chronic bronchitis results in | barrel chested bec of trouble exhaling so air gets trapped |
| increased resistance does what to alveoli | breaks them down so airways don't have good elastic tissue |
| lung volumes include | TV, IRV, ERV, RV |
| TV stands for...and it is the... | tidal volume...normal inhalation volume |
| IRV stands for...and is the.. | inspiratory reserve volume...amount of air you can forcefully inhale after TV |
| ERV stands for..and is... | expiratory reserve volume...forceful exhale after passive exhale |
| RV stands for...and it is what... | right ventricular volume...keeps the alveoli open |
| capacities include | VC, IC, FRC, TLC |
| VC stands for...and = ... | vital capacity...ERV+TV+IRV |
| VC is everything... | you can exchange |
| IC stands for...and =... | inspiratory capacity...TV+IRV |
| IC is how much | you can inhale |
| FRC stands for...and = .... | functional residual capacity...ERV+RV |
| FRC is the amount of gas in the lungs at... | start of respiratory cycle(before inhalation) |
| TLC stands for...and =... | total lung capacity...RV+ERV+TV+IRV |
| TLC can be summed up as | vital capacity plus residual capacity |
| What changes with exercise? | IRV decreases |
| pulmonary functions test involves | max. breath and forced exhale (fast and forceful) |
| pulmonary functions test is the amount of | forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV) & pulmonary functions test |
| Pulmonary functions test can determine if someone has | obstructive lung diseases or restrictive lung diseases |
| obstructive lung diseases would be things like...where there is a dec in... | asthma and COPD...FEV/VC |
| in obstructive lung diseases what happens to the small airways | they collapse during forceful exhale |
| obstructive lung diseases have good...but bad...and it does what to flow? | compliance...recoil...obstructs it |
| restrictive lung diseases include...and they exhibit... | fibrosis and muscular distrophy...normal FEV/VC |
| restrictive lung diseases restrict what...and have good or poor compliance | expansion...poor |
| alveolar ventilation includes | minute ventilation, anatomic dead space and alveolar ventilation |
| minute ventilation is abbreviated as...and the equation is...which means... | VE...VE+ VT(f)...tidal volume(ml/breath) * resp. rate(breaths/min) |
| minute ventilation is equivilant to | 500 mL*16 breaths/min |
| anatomic dead space is abbreviated...and is located in the | VD...conducting zone |
| the anatomic dead space is equivilant to | 150 mL |
| alveolar ventilation is abbreviated as..and the equation is...which means... | VA...VA = (VT-VD) * f...[tidal volume(ml/breath)-dead space (ml/breath)] * resp. rate (breaths/min) |
| what can you do to change the alveolar ventilation? | ^ TV vs. ^ resp rate or both |
| physiologic dead space is in the...and it =... | lung tissue itself...alveolar dead space + anatomic dead space |
| what is happening in the physiologic dead space? | nothing |
| alveolar dead space is usually...and the alveoli are... | very small volume...inactive |
| physiologically inactive alveoli have low | blood flow to the capillary around the alveoli |
| gas exchange happens either through | bulk flow or diffusion |
| mechanism of transport for O2 & CO2 is done by | bulk flow |
| mechanism of exchange for o2 and co2 is done by | diffusion and concentration gradients |
| diffusion happens in two palces | lungs(o2 to blood and co2 to alveoli) and other tissues (o2 to cells and co2 to blood) |
| partial pressure of gasses is the same thing as | concentration gradients |
| partial pressure of gasses is the pressure exerted by | an individual gas |
| PO2 is proportion to | the [o2] (brackets = concentration gradient) |
| PO2 is the % of gas... | in the air *atmoshperic pressure = Pgas |
| PO2: | .21 * 760 mm Hg = 160 mm Hg at sea level |
| diffusion is driven by the | gradients between the PO2 in the alveoli, the blood and the cells |
| factors affecting PO2 include | atmospheric PO2, rate of alveolar ventilation, rate of O2 consumption by the body and alveolar PO2 |
| atmospheric PO2 (think high altitude): if you dec atmospheric PO2 >... | dec alveolar PO2 |
| if you dec. rate of alveolar ventilation (BPM) > | dec alveolar PO2 |
| increasing the rate of O2 consumption by the body(moving into the blood) > ... | dec alveolar PO2 |
| alveolar PO2 = ...and is < or > than.. | 105 mm Hg...less than atmospheric bec some O2 has diffused to blood |
| factors affecting PCO2 include | atmospheric CO2, rate of alveolar ventilation, rate of O2 consumption by the body |
| atmospheric PCO2 has... | no real effect since ATM PCO2 = 0 |
| decreasing the rate of alveolar ventilation >... | ^ alveolar PCO2 |
| increasing rate of O2 consumption by the body >... | ^ alveolar PCO2 |
| PCO2 =...and is ... | 40 mm Hg...greater in the lungs/alveoli than atmospheric bec some CO2 has diffused to alveoli |
| alveolar ventilation can be effected by | hypoventilation or hyperventilation |
| hypoventilation means you aren't | exhanging gas fast enough to deal with how much CO2 you're producing |
| during hypovent, CO2 production...which means what is greater than what? | exceeds alveolar ventilation...metabolic production > alveolar ventilation |
| during hypovent what increases?...which means? | alveolar PCO2...PCO2 > 40 mm Hg |
| hyperventilation is when CO2 production | is less than alveolar ventilation (metbolic production < alveolar ventilation |
| what do you do during hypervent? | blow off CO2 |
| hyperventilation decreases | alveolar PCO2 (PCO2 < 40 mm Hg) |
| good blood means you have...and is in the.. | high O2 and low CO2...pulmonary veins and systemic arteries |
| alveolar - blood exchange diffuses to | equilibrium of alveolar and blood PO2 & PCO2 |
| in a healthy lung there is | rapid diffusion of alveolar - blood exchange |
| in a diseased lung there is | slower diffusion of alveolar - blood exchange |
| diseased lung could be things like | pulmonary edema or pulmonary fibrosis |
| in pulmonary edema (heart failure) there is | accumulation of fluids in the alveoli (dec lung space so the gases have to diffuse through more than just the two thin layers) |
| pulmonary fibrosis results in | thickened alveolar CT (basement membrane) = harder to diffuse |
| ventilation perfusion matching is when | air supply is balanced with blood supply to lungs |
| ventilation and perfusion are not...so normal breathing:... | perfectly distributed through the lungs...increased blood flow to the base of the lung compared to the apex |
| why is there more blood flow to the base of the lung compared to the apex? | gravity and pulmonary blood pressure is so low that it doesn't keep the capillaries of the lung apex open |
| exercise breathing:...so it... | increases blood flow to the apex of the lung...increases ventilation - perfusion matching and increases pulmonary blood pressure |
| ventilation-perfusion inequalities affects | O2 exchange more than CO2 exchange |
| healthy individuals have increased...to the...because of... | blood flow...base of the lung compared to the apex..gravity |
| in the healthy individual the pulmonary venous and systemic arterial PO2 is... | lowered to 100 mm Hg instead of the expected 105 mm Hg with equilibrium |
| disease of ventilation-perfusion inequalities do what | increase alveolar dead space so the alveoli don't work bec of low air flow, collapsed resp. bronchioles and edema |
| diseases that increase alveolar dead space result in | shunts and ventilated alveoli w/ reduced blood flow |
| a shunt is | decreased air flow to a section of alveoli w/ an adequate blood supply (edema) |
| ventilated alveoli w/ reduced blood flow means that...and is seen in... | capillaries aren't working...interstitial fibrosis |
| responses to ventilation-perfusion inequalities include | dec PO2 in pulmonary capillaries and dec PCO2 in alveoli |
| there is a dec PO2 in pulmonary capillaries due to...>... | PO2 in their alveoli...vasoconstriction of the capillaries in that area of the lung |
| dec PO2 in pulmonary capillaries due to dec PO2 in their alveoli > vasoconstriction of the capillaries diverts blood to | capillaries around functional alveoli |
| dec PCO2 in alveoli is due to...>... | poor blood supply to alveoli (ventilated but no exchange)...bronchoconstriction of the airways |
| dec PCO2 in alveoli due to poor blood supply to alveoli > bronchoconstriction of the airways diverts air to | alveoli with functional capillaries |
| blood-cell echange means net diffusion follows | partial pressure gradients |
| PO2 is always | lower in cells than in blood (higher in alvoeli) |
| PCO2 is always | higher in cells than in blood (lower in alveoli) |
| blood O2 content is either | dissolved in the plasma (1%) or bound to hemoglobin (99%) |
| dissolved O2 amount depends upon...and it is proportional to.. | PO2 in blood..blood PO2 |
| O2 binds to..which is a...and contains... | hemoglobin...multimeric protein...4 globin molecules (each w/ 1 heme group w/ Fe2+) |
| each hemoglobin can carry | 4 O2 molecules |
| if hemoglobin has O2 bound to it, it is called...and if it doesn't its called... | oxyhemoglobin...deoxyhemoglobin (HbO2 <> Hb) |
| percent hemoglobin saturation is how well | is the hemoglobin carrying oxygen vs. how well it could |
| percent hemoglobin saturation equation | O2 bound to Hb/max O2 carrying-capacity |
| total amount of HbO2 is essentially... | total O2 |
| what helps determine HbO2? | PO2 (but HbO2 does not determine blood PO2) |
| amount of Hb | less Hb - less HbO2 - anemia |
| there is a constant gradient into.. | blood until no more O2 can bind to hemoglobin |
| where is O2 hidden? | in the RBC when it is bound to hemoglobin |
| O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve is how well | hemoglobin will let go of O2 in systemic tissues |
| where is the plateau stage for the HbO2 dissociation curve?...and there is a change in...w/... | PO2 70-100...PO2...small change in % saturation |
| 90% saturated stage of the HbO2 dis. curve?...and there is lower... | PO2 60...lower PO2 still 90% saturated |
| rapid dissociation occurs during...and happens at the... | PO2 20-60...systemic capillaries |
| association happens at | pulmonary capillaries |
| 75% -100% Hb saturation > | 40 mm Hg - 100 mm Hg |
| normal exchange range | 25% O2 extracted from blood |
| range extended with exercise | increased concentration gradients between cells and blood, and blood and alveoli |
| O2 from alveoli to blood: diffusion of O2 to blood > | ^ blood PO2 > association of O2 and Hb > dec blood PO2 > more diffusion to blood > continue to 100% Hb saturation |
| O2 from alveoli to blood involves the | PO2 gradient |
| alveolar PO2 = | 105 mm Hg |
| pulmonary arterial blood PO2 = | 40 mm Hg |
| pulmonary venous PO2 = | 100 mm Hg |
| O2 transport from blood to tissue: diffusion of O2 to tissues > | dec blood PO2 > dissociation of O2 from Hb> ^ blood PO2 > more diffusion to tissues > continue to 75% Hb saturation |
| O2 transport from blood to tissues involves the | PO2 gradient |
| cell PO2 < | 40 mm Hg |
| systemic arterial PO2 = | 100 mm Hg |
| systemic venous PO2 = | 40 mm Hg |
| carbon monoxide also binds to | Hb at same site as O2 |
| CO is...times the.. | 210...the affinity for Hb as O2 (binds faster and easier) |
| Co occupies the...and reduces... | O2 binding sites on Hb...amount of O2 transported by Hb |
| CO does not | increase ventilation reflexes (none of the normal triggers happen - such as the ventilation reflex) |
| CO results in...which is different than... | asphyciation (no O2 transported)...suffocation (can't ventilate) |
| asphyxiation turns people | pink |
| other factors that affect O2 transport include | 2,3 DPG, temp and acidity |
| 2,3 diphosphoglycerate (DPG) is produced in...and it mimics the effects of... | conditions of low O2...acidity |
| increasing [DPG]> ...and this causes the dissociation curve to shift to the..which means... | dec Hb affinity for O2...right...you release O2 and ^ partial pressure |
| dec [DPG] > ...which causes the dissociation curve to...and it makes... | ^ Hb affinity for O2...left...hemoglobin hang on to O2 |
| ^ temp > ...and this causes... | dec Hb affinity for O2(O2 is released)...curve to shift to the right |
| ^ temp occurs at the | systemic capillaries |
| dec temp > ...and this causes... | ^ Hb affinity for O2...curve to shift to the left |
| dec temp occurs at | pulmonary capillaries |
| acidity involves | H+ and CO2 |
| ^ acidity >...and causes... | dec Hb affinity for O2...the curve to shift to the right |
| ^ acidity occurs at | systemic capillaries |
| dec acidity > ...and causes...and occurs at... | ^ Hb affinity for O2...curve shifts to the left...pulmonary capillaries |
| there is a direct relationship between | O2 and pH |
| the real workhorses that are constantly effecting O2 transport are | temp and acidity |
| CO2 transport is either | dissolved CO2 or bound CO2 |
| dissolved CO2 amount depends upon | PCO2 in blood |
| what percentage of CO2 is dissolved? | 10 - in plasma |
| dissolved CO2 is | proportional to blood PCO2 |
| bound CO2 is bound to...and what percentage is bound? | hemoglobin...30% |
| hemoglobin <->... = ... | carbaminohemoglobin...Hb + CO2 > HbCO2 |
| conversion of CO2 to...through the equation... | bicarbonate...CO2 + H20 <-> H2CO3 <-> HCO3- + H+ |
| how much CO2 is converted | 60% |
| so, in review, CO2 does one of three things... | it either dissolves, binds or is converted to bicarbonate |
| total blood CO2 means you must consider | dissolved + bound + converted CO2 |
| conversion of CO2 to bicarbonate occurs in | RBC and can happen in plasma |
| what converts carbonic to bicarbonate? | carbonic anahydrase - catalyst in RBCs for H2CO3 production |
| chloride shift is seen during | exchange of Cl- for HCO3 |
| Cl- from...is stored in... | plasma...RBC |
| during chloride shift, HCO3- is moved to...and is important bec it is... | plasma...pH buffer |
| there is a ...shift at the.. | reverse...alveoli |
| CO2 transport from systemic tissue to the blood: diffusion of CO2 to blood >... | ^ blood PCO2 > diffusion of CO2 > diffusion CO2 to RBCs > dec blood PCO2 > more diffusion of CO2 to blood |
| diffusion of CO2 to blood > ^ blood PCO2 > diffusion of CO2 to RBCs > dec blood PCO2 > more diffusion of CO2 to blood involes the... | PCO2 gradient |
| tissue PCO2 > | 46 mm Hg |
| systemic arterial PCO2 = | 40 mm Hg |
| systemic venous PCO2 = ...and this is where.. | 46 mm Hg...equilibrium is met |
| which is the highest PCO2 gradient? | tissue PCO2 bec this is where it is produced |
| CO2 transport from blood to alveoli: diffusion of CO2 to alveoli > | dec blood PCO2 > release of CO2 from Hb > ^ blood PCO2 > more diffusion to alveoli |
| diffusion of CO2 to alveoli > dec blood PCO2 > release of CO2 from Hb > ^ blood PCO2 > more diffusion to alveoli involves the | PCO2 gradient |
| alveolar PCO2 = | 40 mm Hg |
| pulmonary arterial PCO2 = | 46 mm Hg |
| pulmonary venous PCO2 = | 40 mm Hg |
| H+ transport involves either | dissolving H+ or binding H+ |
| dissolved H+ undergoes what equation? | CO2 + H20 <-> H2CO3 <-> HCO3- + H+ |
| does a very small or very large amount of H+ get dissolveD? | very small |
| bound H+ also goes through...and it can bind in the... | the same equation as dissolved H+...systemic capillaries & veins and pulmonary arteries & capillaries |
| in the systemic capillaries and veins - deoxyhemoglobin <->... | reduced hemoglobin...Hb + H+ <-> HHb |
| in the pulmonary arteries and capillaries goes from..to... | reduced hemoglobin <-> deoxyhemoglobin (HHb <-> Hb + H+) |
| blood pH acceptable range | 7.35+7.45 |
| systemic arterial blood pH is | 7.4 |
| systemic venous blood pH is | 7.36 |
| why is venous blood slightly more acidic | it carries more co2, but not not much more than arterial blood because of reduced Hb(HHb) that maintains blood pH |
| respiratory acidosis is also called...and it means | acedemia...not getting rid of enough CO2 |
| resp acidosis involves a build-up of...and arterial blood pH < ...and excess... | H+...7.35...co2 |
| excess co2 in resp. acidosis is caused by...and can lead to... | hypoventilation (produce more co2 than you blow off)...lung disease (COPD) |
| respiratory alkalosis is also called...and is more..because... | alkalemia...basic...you've gotten rid of too much co2 |
| respiratory alkalosis involves a...of blood H+ and an arterial blood pH > ...and lastly... | decrease...7.45...low co2 (hyperventilation) |
| osis = ...and emia = ... | process...blood condition |
| during inspiration the...are... | diaphragm and external intercostal muscles...voluntarily controlled by somatic motor system stimulation |
| somatic motor system stimulation involves...and is only... | ACh neurotransmitter...excitatory(contract) |
| normal expiration is...and involves stopping... | passive...somatic motor stimulation to diaphragm and external intercostal muscles |
| deep expiration happens with help from | abdominal and internal intercostal muscles through somatic motor system stimulation (ACh neurot and excitatory only) |
| neural control of respiration involves | medulla oblongata, pons, pulmonary stretch receptors |
| medulla oblongata does...and the specific part that controls respiration is the... | basic life functions and regulations...medullary respiratory center |
| medulla oblongata has two groups | dorsal respiratory (DRG) and ventral respiratory (VRG) |
| DRG gives...via... | rhythmic stimulation to inspiratory skeletal muscles...spinal nerves |
| DRG responds to | lung stretch receptors and arterial chemoreceptors |
| VRG has two components | pre-botzinger complex and lower neurons of VRG |
| pre-botzinger complex is the..and has... | respiratory rhythm generator..pacemaker cells and neural network |
| the pacemaker cells and neural network of the pre-botzinger complex set the | basal resp. rate |
| lower neurons of VRG are the | inspiratory and expiratory neurons |
| lower neurons of VRG responds to...to stimulate | DRG and pre-botzinger complex...inspiratory and expiratory muscles via spinal nerves |
| there is...between inspiratory and expiratory neurons | reciprocal inhibition |
| medulla oblongata: medullary resp. center in summary includes | DRP, VRP (upper pre-botzinger complex and lower active expiration) |
| pons helps | fine regulate the medullary resp center |
| pons includes two parts | apneustic center and pneumotaxic center |
| apneustic center does what...and... | fine tuning actions of the medullary inspiratory neurons..inhibits medullary inspiratory neurons > expiration |
| pneumotaxic center regulates...and provides a... | apneustic center...smooth transition between inspiration and expiration |
| pulmonary stretch receptors involve the | hering breuer reflex |
| the hering breuer reflex is a...involving... | neg feedback system...stretch receptors in airways |
| the hering breuer reflex inhibits (or?) stimulates... | inhibits..medullary inspiratory neurons when receptors are triggered |
| the hering-breuer reflex functions only during | deep breathing |
| inhibition of the medullary resp center involves | barbituates and morphine |
| overdosing on barbituates and morphine leads to | cessation of breathing |
| control of respiration can also happen through | chemicals (peripheral and central) |
| chemical control involves...which are sensitive to | peripheral chemoreceptors...o2, co2 and pH |
| peripheral chemoreceptors are in the same areas as the... | baroreceptors (carotid bodies and aortic bodies) |
| the carotid bodies are innervated by the | glossopharyngeal CN IX |
| aortic bodies are innervated by the | vagus CN X |
| stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors > | stimulates medullar inspiratory neurons > stimulates inspiration |
| peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated by | dec PO2, ^ H+ and ^ PCO2 |
| dec PO2 is called...and is not very effective until... | hypoxia...systemic arterial blood reaches PO2 |
| hypoxia is activated by | high altitude or lung disease COPD |
| ^ H+ is called | metabolic acidosis |
| metabolic acidosis: dec blood pH due to | acid production via metabolism not CO2 production |
| metabolic acidosis: ^ blood pH due to | dec H+ > reduce firing of peripheral chemoreceptors |
| ^ PCO2 is called... | respiratory acidosis |
| resp. acidosis can either be | small ^ PCO2 > ^ stimulation to breath or small dec in PCO2 > dec stimulation to breath |
| central chemoreceptors are located in the | medulla oblongata |
| stimulation of central chemoreceptors > | stimulates medullary inspiratory neurons > stimulates inspiration |
| what stimulates central chemoreceptors | ^ [H+] |
| in the BBB, H+ ..but CO2 | does not cross the barrier...does |
| [H=] is | proportional to CO2 diffusing into the CSF |
| central chemoreceptors are actually monitoring...and is responding to...but...so it monitors... | CSF...CO2..chemoreceptors respond to pH...pH in CSF but its PCO2 in blood that activates the cent. chemoreceptors |
| control of ventilation in exercise: does systemic arterial PCO2 increase? | no it doesn't |
| why are we looking at systemic arterial PCO2 during exercise? | monitoring this assesses how well your lungs are working |
| during exercise there is ^...and only ^ in.. | cellular metabolism...systemic venous and pulmonary arterial PCO2 |
| during exercise you blow... | co2 off w/ expiration (hyperventilation) |
| blowing off so much CO2 during exercise causes | no^ in systemic arterial PCO2 |
| no ^ in systemic arterial PCO2's effect on peripheral chemoreceptors?...on central?... | less firing |
| does systemic arterial PO2 decrease during exercise? | no it doesn't |
| during exercise there is ^... | cellular metabolism (only dec systemic veins and pulmonary arterial PO2) |
| during exercise you re-supply | blood w/ inspiration so that the PO2 stays constant |
| during exercise there is no dec in systemic arterial PO2 - how does this effect central and peripheral chemoreceptors | it doesn't |
| does systemic arterial [H+] increase during exercise? | yes but not due to ^ PCO2...co2 is blown off in expiration |
| during exercise you ^...>... | metabolism...^ lactic acid as a result of cellular activity |
| ^ metabolism causes ^ | [H+] > dec pH |
| ^ metabolism stimulates...to increase.. | peripheral chemoreceptors...minute ventilation |
| ^ metabolism doesn't effect...bec... | central chemoreceptors because H+ can't cross the BBB |
| other stimuli (that increase breathing) during exercise include | reflex w/ ^ joint & muscle mechanoreceptor stimulation |
| ^...increases breathing | body temp |
| ^ input to the...via...increases breathing | medulla...branches of neurons from motor cortex to skeletal muscles |
| increasing blood...causes increase in breathing | epinephrine(symp system) |
| ^ blood...leaked from... | plasma K+...skeletal muscle cells increases breathing |
| conditioned response for train athletes is | immediate increase in respiration |
| cough reflex is done to...and the receptors are in the... | lower respiratory system...larynx, trachea and bronchi |
| cough reflex involves...tomove particulates and mucus from...and to prevent... | deep inspiration and forceful expiration ...small airways to larger airways for removal..aspiration |
| what inhibits the cough reflex? | alcohol |
| sneeze reflex clears the....which receptors in the... | upper resp. system...nasal cavity and pharynx |
| sneeze reflex involves | deep inspiration and foreceful expiration to remove particulates and irritants from upper resp. system |
| cessation of breathing happens when | exposed to noxious chemicals (smelling skunk) |
| smokers can lose | the reflex of stopping breathing in noxious chemicals |
| speech involves | deeper inspiration and controlled expiration |
| swallowing means you can't | breath at the same time |
| breath holding is called...and is controlled by | voluntary apnea...skeletal muscles (over-riding) |
| reflex overide during voluntary apnea alters | blood gas pressures (hypoventilating) by ^ arterial PCO2, ^ arterial [H+] and dec arterial PO2 |
| underwater swimming: usually you... | hyperventilate (dec PCO2) |
| underwater swimming results in a loss of | stimulus to breath (no voluntary ability) |
| during underwater swimming you dec | PO2 to levels that may lead to unconsciousness |
| hypoxia is..and anoxia is... | deficiency of O2 at tissues...lack of O2 at tissues |
| forms of hypoxia include | hypoxic hypoxia, anemic or carbon monoxide hypoxia, ischemic hypoxia, histotoxic hypoxia |
| hypoxic hypoxia is also called...and it results in... | hypoxemia...dec arterial PO2 |
| during hypoxemia you're not | picking up enough O2 at the lungs |
| anemic or carbon monoxide hypoxia is normal | arterial PO2 but dec total blood O2 bec lack of Hb or Hb has too much CO2 |
| ischemic hypoxia is also called..and involves... | hypoperfusion hypoxia...dec blood flow to tissues |
| histotoxic hypoxia means the cells are unable to... | utilize O2 |
| hypoxia and hypercapnia means...as a reuslt of... | ^ CO2...hypoventilation |
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handrzej
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