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adv phys exam2
advanced physiology exam#2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| water is housed in two places in the body | 1.inside the cell-intracellular 2.outside the cell-extracellular |
| intracellular extracellular | 66% of water in body 33% of water in body |
| 2 components in extracellular space are interstitial space and blood vessels | interstitial space-80% of 33% blood vessels- 20% of 33% |
| hormones(allow for movement of water between compartments) | chemical substances that are made in one part of the body but act in another part of the body |
| extra cellular matrix made up of 4 major parts | the area that houses different organs within the body. made up of interstitial fluid, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and elastin |
| interstitial fluid- | fluid in interstitial space |
| proteoglycans- | greater amounts of carbohydrates compared to proteins |
| glycoproteins | greater amounts of proteins compared to carbohydrates |
| elastin | connective tissue that allows structural reinforcement to the extracellular matrix |
| movement of substances occurs from one area to another through what? | a semipermeable membrane |
| what two major factors influence the movement of substances through a semipermeable membrane? | size of the molecule-the smaller the easier and the polarity of a molecule- nonpolar molecules move easier than polar molecules when you have polar molecule, you need to package the protein in a protein to facillitate its movement |
| transport of substances from one area to another can be categorized in what two ways? | use of a carrier protein and use of energy |
| simple diffusion | involves movement of a SOLUTE from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration across a semipermeable membrane without the use of a carrier protein, without the use of energy |
| solute | molecule of substance being dissolved(sugar in sugar water) |
| solvent | liquid medium that dissolves the molecule(water in sugar water) |
| what 4 factors influence the rate of simple diffusion w/i our body? | difference in concentration gradient on either side of semipermeable membrane, permeability of semipermeable membrane to a given solute,temperature of the environment and the surface area available for sd |
| difference in concentration | if there is a greater difference in hi-lo- simple diffusion |
| permeability of semipermeable membrane | sometimes you have membranes more permeable to a certain solute and less permeable to others- facillitate or inhibit a diffusion. the more permeable the membrane is to a solute, the greater the rate of simple diffusion |
| temperature of the environment | as you increase the temp, you increase the rate of simple diffusion up to a point and then it plateaus. if you increase the temp twoo much- you alter homeostasis (reduce amount of sd) |
| surface area available for simple diffusion | greater surface area, greater rate of simple diffusion. lower surface area, decreased rate of simple diffusion |
| what two major organs is simple diffusion constantly occuring? | the kidneys and lungs |
| kidneys | major function is to get rid of waste products in our blood and to retain good substances within our blood through process of simple diffusion |
| renal failure | failure to remove toxins in blood through simple diffusion in the kidneys |
| lungs(alveoli and pulmonary capillaries) | important function is gas exchange; exchange of gases is based on difference in partial pressure of the gases |
| partial pressure | pressure exerted by an individual gas withion a certain environment |
| osmosis | movement of WATER from areas of high concentration to low concentration across a semipermeable membrane without the use of a carrier protein without the use of energy |
| in order for us to move water from high to low concentration there needs to be what? | a difference in the concentration of the solute (concentration gradient)need a semipermeable membrane that is relatively impermeable to the solute |
| osmotic pressure/oncotic pressure | invoves the pressure exerted by protein molecules that draws water twards itself-keeps water within the blood vessel |
| more protein in the blood vessel means what? | more water attracted to the blood vessel/more water in the blood vessel |
| less protein in the blood means what? | more water in the interstitial space, less water in the blood vessel |
| isotonic solution | concentration of H2O within the solution = the concentration of H20 outside the cell |
| hypotonic solution | concentration of H20 outside the cell > concentration of H20 within cell (CELL WILL SWELL) |
| hypertonic solution | concentration of H20 inside the cell > concentration of H20 outside cell (CELL WILL SHRINK-CRENATION) |
| dehydration | not drinking water at all |
| 1. when you become dehydrated you lose water in your blood vessels--> | now you have relatively more protein in your blood vessels- that protein is going to exert an oncotic pressure(concentration gradient) to pull water from the interstitial spaces into the vessels |
| 2. on surface of blood vessel we have osmoreceptors--> | job is to sense drop in the concentration of water within the blood vessel |
| what happens as soon as the osmoreceptor register that drop in blood pressure? | sends signals to the hypothalamus in brain |
| what happens when the hypothalamus gets the signal of low blood pressure sent by the osmoreceptors? | you drink water to get hydrated again |
| if i decide to not have any water despite the signal sent by the osmoreceptors to the hypothalamus to tell me to drink water? | the hypothalamus contacts the posterior pituitary which will release the Antidiuretic hormone VASOPRESSIN -tells kidney not to diurese |
| what does it mean to diurese? | to get rid of fluid/release fluid |
| facillitated diffusion | involves the movement of the solute from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration across the semipermeable membrane WITH THE USE OF A CARRIER PROTEIN WITHOUT THE USE OF ENERGY |
| 3 factors influence the rate of facilitated diffusion | 1. concentration of the solute relative to the concentration of the carrier protein, specificity and competition |
| concentration of the solute relative to concentration of the carrier protein | as you increase the concentration of the solute you increase the concentration of the solute you increase the rate of facilitated diffusion up to a point and then it plateaus(point of transport maximum) |
| point of transport maximum | all carrier molecules are saturated/utilized. highest point of facillitated diffusion |
| specificity in facillitated diffusion | certain solutes work with certain transport molecules/carrier proteins |
| when you have two solutes competing for the same carrier protein--> | reduce the rate of facillitated diffusion. remove one of the solutes competing-->increase rate of fd |
| active transport | moving substances from areas of LOW CONCENTRATION TO AREAS OF HIGH CONCENTRATION across a semipermeable membrane WITH THE USE OF A CARRIER PROTEIN AND WITH THE USE OF ENERGY |
| what are the 3 major pump mechanisms that occur within our body? | sodium-potassium pump, calcium pump, hydrogen pump |
| sodium potassium pump is mainly seen where? | in cardiac muscle cells and nervous cells |
| calcium pump is seen where? | skeletal muscle |
| hydrogen pump is mainly seen where? | in the stomach, pertinent to the digestive system |
| sodium potassium pump- sodium&potassium ions are present inside and outside of the cell moving to the surface of the cell | at the surface of the cell they BIND TO A CARRIER PROTEIN CALLED ATpase-->hydrolyze the molecule. AS SOON AS YOU SHUNT OUT 3 SODIUM IONS YOU BRING IN 2 POTASSIUM IONS from outside- resulting in more sodiums outside and more potassiums inside |
| why is sodium always within a higher concentration outside the cell | because if you keep alot of sodium inside the cell, the cell will burst |
| resting membrane potential | potential difference caused by the difference of the concentration of ions- get a votage |
| potential difference | when we alter the membrane potential, creating an electrical conduction |
| 3 types of cell signaling | paracrine signaling, synaptic signaling and endocrine signaling |
| paracrine signaling | any cell cell realeases regulatory molecules that act within the same organ where it was released- molecules released by one cell influence other cells within the same organ |
| synaptic signaling | cells that release neurotransmitters AT THE AXON END OF THE NERVE CELL to influence another nerve cell or the muscle tissue at the neuromuscularjunction |
| endocrine signaling | the cell releases regulatory molecules that go out to other organs different from where they are released- secreted in one organ and utilized in another ex:posterior pituitary releasing ADH that works in the kidney |
| cells pertinent to the nervous system | nerve cells(neurons)and supporting cells(glial cells) |
| neuron- 3 major parts | cell body, dendrites and axon |
| cell body of the neuron | nutritional center of neuron, lots of endoplasmic reticulum (protein synthesis and ribosomes) |
| Nissl bodies | endoplasmic reticulum of the neuron |
| nuclei | a collection of cell bodies together in the CENTRAL nervous system |
| ganglia | a collection of cell bodies in the PERIPHERAL nervous system |
| dendrites | responsible in transmitting information TO the cell body from other nerves |
| axon two major parts- axon hillock and axon co-laterals | responsible for transmitting information or electrical impulses AWAY from the body |
| axon hillock | junction between the cell body and the axon |
| axon colaterals | side branches or extensions of the axon |
| we can classify neurons from a | structural perspective or a funtional perspecitve |
| structural perspective 3 major types | pseudounipolar neuron-a neuron with one process that comes out of the cell body bipolar neuron-one dendron and one axon coming out from opposite ends of the cell body multipolar-multiple dendrites and one axon coming out of the cell body |
| functional perspective- 3 major types | sensory(afferent)-bring in information or conduct impulses into the CNS motor(efferent)- relay impulses out of CNS to PNS interneurons-association neurons- only found within the CNS-relay info w/i CNS afferent |
| supporting cells (glial cells) 4 types | within the CNS&PNS, support the functioning of the neuron oligodendrocytes, microglia, astrocytes, ependymal cells |
| Oligodendrocytes | form the white matter of the central nervous system (white matter-myelin sheath that covers the axons of the neurons in the CNS) |
| Microglial cells | job is to engulf and destroy through the process of phagocytosis, debri&pathogens within the CNS |
| Astrocytes | cover capillaries of the CNS to form the blood brain barrier- essential within CNS because it allows only certain molecules to get into the brain |
| Ependymal cells | form the epithelial lining of the venricles of the brain |
| in the peripheral nervous system, 2 types of supporting cells | schwann cells satellite cells |
| schwann cells | based around the axons of the peripheral nervous system, the sheat covering of the axons is the neurilemma |
| Nodes of Ranvia | between the schwann cells- facilitates the flow of electrical impulses down the axon |
| nerve regeneration | if you damage a nerve, they can regenerate- can occur both in CNS&PNS (within CNS regeneration is slower b/c oligodendrocites secrete proteins that inhibit regeneration of nerves |
| grey matter | all the dendrons & cell bodies |
| white matter | axons of the neurons |
| brain is made up of 4 parts | cerebrum diencephalon brain stem cerebellum |
| cerebrum | largest part of the brain responsible for higher mental functions 2hemispheres (right&left) the 2 hemispheres can communicate through tracts/pathways-corpus callosum |
| the cerebral cortex is highly convoluted peaks troughs | gyri sulci |
| within each hemisphere exists 5 lobes | parietal temporal frontal occipital insula |
| parietal lobe of cerebrum | primary sensory cortex of the brain responsible for integration of sensory information of the periphery(post central gyrus) |
| post central gyrus of the parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus | area in the parietal lobe where the sensory information from the periphery is integrated |
| temporal lobe of cerebrum | primary auditory cortex of the brain recieves information from the inner ear there is a specific area that allows for language comprehension(wernicke's area) |
| Wernicke's area | specific area within the temporal lobe that allows for language comprehension |
| frontal lobe of cerebrum | primary motor cortex of the brain can be subdivided into 3 parts-precentral cortex,precentral gyrus, broca's area |
| pre-central cortex of frontal lobe | emotions and judgement(if there is damage to this you have a flat affect-no emotions judgements are off) also where long term memory is stored |
| pre-central gyrus of frontal lobe (anterior to the central sulcus) | involved with integration of motor information |
| Broca's area | responsible for the production of speech- controls motor aspects of speech (if damaged, you know what you want to say but can't get it out) |
| aphasia | altered ability to communicate via speech |
| receptive aphasia | unable to communicate because they cannot understand what you are saying- damage to Wernicke's area |
| expressive aphasia | patient is unable to expressively communicate because of damage to the Broca's Area (patients can sing but not talk clearly) |
| global aphasia | unable to communicate because they cannot understand what you are saying &they cannot communicate what they want to say through speech- wernicke's and broca's areas are both damaged |
| occipital lobe of cerebrum | primary visual cortex of the brain-responsible for vision and the coordination of eye movements |
| insula of the cerebrum (lies deep under the frontal&parietal lobes) | important for integrating sensory information with visceral(organ) response and memory |
| peripheral impulses are always integrated in- a person with a problem in the right precentral gyrus will have | the opposite side of the brain. problems with motor activity in the left side of the body |
| central sulcus | the clear division between the frontal and parietal lobes |
| basal ganglia 3 major nuclei- corpus striatum caudate, lenticular-globus palladus,putamen amygdaloid claustrum | specialized masses of grey matter that assist with the control of voluntary movements |
| cerebral domninance/lateralization | refers to specialized function wihin specific hemispheres |
| right hemisphere dominance | spacial/ visual |
| left hemisphere dominance | language/analytical ability |
| limbic system | emotion & motivation |
| memory | occurs because of multiple areas of the brain working together in order |
| amnesia | loss of memory |
| short term memory | ability to created new memory- controlled by the hippocampus& the amygdala |
| hippocampus | allows us to transfer memory from short to long term memory |
| long term memory | stored in the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe of the frontal lobe |
| diencephalon | part of the forebrain that contains the epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus and part of the pituitary gland |
| thalamus | acts primarily as a relay center through which all sensory information (except smell) passes on the way to the cerebrum |
| sensory nuclei | Collects sensory information from the face and body and relayed to the post central gyrus of the parietal lobe |
| motor nuclei | recieve information from the cerebellum& global pallidus& sends that information to the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe |
| other nuclei | responsibility is to collect info from the viscera(organs)to the cerebrum& other parts of the brain |
| hypothalamus | primary responsibility is driving autonomic nervous system control maintains homeostasis |
| homeostasis- | normal control of temperature, water balance within our blood vessels |
| 3rd major part of brain brain stem | made up of midbain, pons and medulla oblongata |
| mid-brain of brainstem -superior peduncles,substantia niagra, red nuclei | relays sensory information signals to the cerebral cortex and carries motor commands to reflex centers. It controls ear and eye reflexes and the processing of pain, temperature, and touch. |
| Superior peduncles of midbrain of brainstem | nuclei at the superior end of midbrainbetween midbrain& cerebrum that are involved in motor activity |
| Substantia Niagra of midbrain of brainstem | secretes a hormone called dopamine- allows for motor activity to occur |
| Red Nucleus of midbrain of brainstem | receives information from tracts within the midbrain |
| Pons of the brainstem | important for the integration of information from the cranial nerves |
| medulla oblongata of brainstem | also important for the integration of information from the cranial nerves- control breathing and cardiovascular control |
| tandem walking | walking heel to toe |
| examples of rapid alternating movements | supination-->pronation finger-->nose test |
| people with parkinsons disease have probems with the substantia niagra | reduced levels of dopamine secreted from substantia niagra- slow movements, tremors |
| 4th important part of brain cerebellum | maintenance of balance, maintenance of posture, coordination of movements |
| if you have damage to the cerebellum (cerebellum infarct) | you loose your coordination and ability to have an erect posture |
| atoxia | a swayed gait |
| Spinal Cord | cyllindrical mass of nerve tissue. divided into segments cooresponding to its relationship to the vertebral column- cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral |
| looking at a cross sectional view of the spinal cord,you can see the spinal cord is made up of central grey matter which is made up of two sections | -anterior/ventral horn- contains cell bodies that give rise to motor(efferent) neurons -posterior/dorsal horn- contains cell bodies of sensory(afferent)neurons |
| REFLEX LOOP-if i touch something, PNS brings it in-->enters the posterior/dorsal horn &is integrated at level of spinal cord--> | comes out of anterior/ventral horn and goes to PNS |
| entire spinal cord is made of tracts ascdending tracts(from periphery) descending tracts(to periphery) | relay information up to the brain bring information down from the brain |
| spinal nerves in PNS afferent(sensory)nerves efferent(motor)nerves | bring information into the posterior horn of the spinal cord relay information out of the spinal cord |
| cranial nerves can have | sensory function, motor function, or mixed sensory&motor function |
| 3 cranial nerves are primarily sensory in funtion | cranial nerve 1-ofactory- allows you to semell cranial nerve 2-optic-allows you to see cranial nerve 8- vestibulo cochlear-hearing |
| cranial nerve 1 | ofactory- smell |
| cranial nerve 2 | optic-see |
| cranial nerve 8 | vestibulo cochlear-hear |
| there are three nerves that are primarily motor with respect to eye movements | cranial nerve 3-ocular motor cranial nerve 4-trochlear cranial nerve 6- abducens |
| cranial nerve 3 | ocular motor |
| cranial nerve 4 | trochlear |
| cranial nerve 6 | abducens |
| there are two nerves that are primarily motor going to skeletal muscle | cranial nerve 11-accessory-muscles of neck and larynx&softpallate cranial nerve 12-hypoglossal-muscles of tongue and neck |
| cranial nerve 11 | accessory-trapezious, sternocleidomastoid, larynx, and soft palate |
| cranial nerve 12 | hypoglossal-muscles of tongue and neck |
| functions of skeletal muscle | force production for locomotion and breathing force production for postural support heat production during cold stress |
| epimysium perimysium endomysium | surrounds entire muscle surrounds bundles of muscle fibers surrounds individual muscle fibers |
| sarcolemma myofibrils | muscle cell membrane strands within muscle fibers (sarcomeres, actin(troponin,tropomyosin), myosin) |
| 1.A motor neuron, with signals from the brain or spinal cord, releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) at the neuromuscular junction. 2.ACh crosses the junction and binds to receptors on the sarcolemma. | 3.this initiates an action potential providing sufficient ACh 4.The action potential travels along the sarcolemma and through the T tubules to the SR releasing Ca2+. |
| 5.The Ca2+ binds to troponin on the actin filament, and the troponin pulls tropomyosin off the active sites, allowing myosin heads to attach to the actin filament. | 6.Once a strong binding state is established with actin, the myosin head tilts, pulling the actin filament (power stroke). |
| 7.The myosin head binds to ATP, releasing energy. | 8.Muscle action ends when calcium is depleted and actively pumped out of the sarcoplasm back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum for storage. |
| type 2x fibers type 2a fibers type 1 fibers | fast twitch,fast glycolytic intermediate fibers, fast-oxidative glycolytic slow-twitch, slow-oxidative |
| power athletes-sprinters | possess higher % of FT fibers |
| endurance atheletes-distance runners, cyclist, canoeists | higher % of ST |
| others-weight lifters and non atheletes | 50% of both ST&FT fibers |
| isometric contractions | force production without length changes, postural muscles |
| isotonic contractions | concentric:muscle shortens eccentric:muscle lengthens |
| isokinetic | constant velocity |
| Muscular Force Generation depends on | Number and type of motor units activated Greater number and/or FT greater the force Size of the muscle Muscles initial length when activated Angle of the joint Muscles speed of action |
| Cranial Nerves 5, 7, 9, and 10 are mixed nerves which means | they have both sensory and motor function |
| relay sensory information from the head | cranial nerves 5, 7 and 9 |
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