PSY2012EXAM2
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| stimuli | energies from the world around us that affect us in some way
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| receptors | specialized cells that convert environmental energies into signals for the nervous system
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| electromagnetic spectrum | the continuum of all the frequencies of radiated energy
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| pupil | adjustable opening in the eye
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| iris | the colored structure on the surface of the eye surrounding the pupil
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| retina | a layer of visual receptors covering the back surface of the eyeball
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| cornea | a rigid transparent structure on the outer surface of the eyeball
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| lens | a flexible structure that can vary in thickness
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| accomodate | to adjust its focus for objects at different distances
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| fovea | the central area of the human retina
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| vitreous humor | light passes through this clear jelly-like substance after passing through the pupil
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| cones | adapted for color vision, daytime vision, and detailed vision
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| rods | adapted for vision in dim light
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| dark adaption | gradual improvement in the ability to see in dim light
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| ganglion cells | neurons that receive their input from the bipolar cells
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| optic nerve | the axons from the ganglion cells join to form this
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| blind spot | the area of the retina through which the optic nerve exits
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| opponent process theory | We perceive color in terms of paired opposites- red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus black.
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| negative afterimages | experiences of one color after the removal of another
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| color constancy | tendency of an object to appear nearly the same color under a variety of lighting conditions
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| retinex theory | we perceive color when the cerebral cortex compares various retinal patterns
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| trichromatic theory | a.k.a. Young-Helmholtz theory; states that our receptors respond to three primary colors: blue, green, and red
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| sensation | the conversion of energy from the environment into a pattern of response by the nervous system
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| perception | the interpretation of sensation information
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| sound waves | vibrations of the air or of another medium
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| pitch | perception closely related to frequency
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| loudness | perception that depends on the amplitude of sound waves
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| cochlea | fluid-filled canals of the snail-shaped organ that contains the receptors for hearing
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| conduction deafness | results when the bones connected to the eardrum fail to transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea
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| hertz (Hz) | the number vibrations (cycles) per second
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| frequency principle | a sound wave through the fluid of the cochlea vibrates all the hair cells, which produce action potentials in synchrony with the sound waves
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| volley principle | groups of hair cells respond to each vibration by producing an action potential
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| place principle | the highest frequency sounds vibrate hair cells near the stirrup end, and lower frequency sounds vibrate hair cells at points farther along the membrane
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| vestibular sense | detects the tilt of the head, acceleration of the head, and orientation of the head with respect to gravity
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| semicircular canals | lined with hair cells and filled with a jellylike substance
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| otolith organs | report the direction of gravity and excite different sets of hair cells
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| cutaneous senses | skin senses (a.k.a. somatosensory system)
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| histamine | chemical released by tissues recovering from an injury or reacting to a mosquito bite
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| anterior cingulate cortex | brain area responsive to the emotional aspect
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| gate theory | the idea that pain messages must pass through a gate, presumably in the spinal cord, that can block the messages
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| substance P | neurotransmitter released by intense pain
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| endorphins | neurotransmitters that inhibit the release of substance P and thereby weaken pain sensations
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| capsaicin | stimulates receptors that respond to painful heat
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| phantom limb | continuing sensations, including pain, in a limb long after it has been amputated
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| taste | detects chemicals on the tongue, governs eating and drinking
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| taste buds | located on the folds on the surface of the tongue
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| olfaction | sense of smell
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| pheromones | chemicals mammals release into the environment
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| synesthesia | condition in which a stimulus of one type, such as sound, also elicits another experience, such as color
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| vomeronasal organ | set of receptors near, but separate from, the standard olfactory receptors
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| just noticeable difference (JND) | the smallest difference that people could detect between one stimulus and another
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| absolute sensory threshold | the intensity at which a given individual detects a stimulus 50% of the time
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| "hit" | reporting the presence of a stimulus
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| "correct rejection" | reporting the absence of a stimulus
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| "miss" | failing to detect a stimulus that was present
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| "false alarm" | reporting a stimulus when none was present
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| signal-detection theory | the study of people's tendencies to make hits, correct rejections, misses, and false alarms
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| subliminal perception | the idea that stimuli sometimes influence our behavior even when they are presented so faintly or briefly that we do not perceive them consciously
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| brightness contrast | the increase or decrease in an object's apparent brightness by comparison to objects around it
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| feature detectors | specialized neurons in the visual cortex that respond to the presence of simple features, such as lines and angles
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| Gestalt psychology | field that focuses on our ability to perceive overall patterns (suggest feature detectors are not enough)
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| bottum-up process | tiny elements combine to produce larger items
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| top-down process | applying all experience and expectations to interpret what each item must be in context
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| figure and ground | object from the background
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| reversible figures | stimuli that can be perceived in more than one way
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| proximity | tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group
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| similarity | tendency to perceive objects that resemble each other as a group
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| continuation | filling in of the gaps
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| closure | imagining the rest of the figure
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| common fate | perceiving objects as part of the same group if they change or move in similar ways at the same time
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| good figure | simple, familiar, symmetrical figure
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| visual constancy | tendency to perceive objects as keeping their shape, size, and color, despite certain distortions in the light pattern reaching our retinas
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| induced movements | incorrectly perceive the object as moving against a stationary background (apparent movement)
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| stroboscopic movement | illusion of movement created by a rapid succession of stationary images
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| depth-perception | perception of distance (depending on several factors)
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| retinal disparity | the difference in the apparent position of an object as seen by the left and right retinas
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| convergence | degree to which they turn into focus on a close object
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| binocular cues | depend on both eyes
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| monocular cues | enable someone to judge depth and distance with just one eye
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| motion parallax | the difference in speed of movement of images across the retina as you travel
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| optical illusion | misinterpretation of a visual stimulus
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| moon illusion | the moon at the horizon appears about 30% larger than it appears when it is higher in the sky
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| chromosomes | strands of hereditary material
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| genes | sections along each chromosome that control the chemical reactions that direct development
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| dominant | a single copy of the gene is sufficient to produce its effect
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| recessive | effects appear only if the dominant gene is absent
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| sex chromosomes | determine whether an individual develops as a male or as a female
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| sex-linked genes (x-linked genes) | genes located on the x-chromosome
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| sex-limited gene | occurs equally in both sexes but exerts its effects mainly or entirely in one or the other
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| heritability | an estimate of the variance within a population that is due to heredity [ranges from 1-0]
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| multiplier effect | a small initial advantage in some behavior, possibly genetic in origin, alters the environment and magnifies that advantage
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| monozygotic twins | develop from a single-fertilized egg and therefore have identical genes [same sex only]
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| dizygotic twins | develop from two eggs and share only half their genes [like brothers and sisters do]
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| interaction | an instance in which the effect of one variable depends on some other variable
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| temperament | the tendency to be active or inactive, outgoing or reserved, and to respond vigorously or quietly to new stimuli
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| Phenylketonuria (PKU) | inherited condition that, if untreated, leads to mental retardation
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| phenylalanine | common constituent of proteins
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| zygote | fertilized egg cell
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| fetus | about 8 weeks after conception
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| fetal alcohol syndrome | a condition marked by stunted growth of the face head and body; malformations of the face, heart, and ears; and nervous system damage, including seizures, hyperactivity, learning disabilities, and mental retardation
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| habituation | decreased response to a repeated stimulus
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| dishabituation | when a change in a stimulus increases a previously habituated response
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| cross-sectional study | compares groups of individuals of different ages at the same time
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| longitudinal study | follows a single group of individuals as they develop
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| selective attrition | the tendency for certain kinds of people to drop our of a study
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| sequential designs | researchers start with groups of people of different ages, studied at the same time, and then study them again at one or more later times
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| cohort | a group of people born at a particular time or a group of people who enter an organization at a particular time
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| schema | an organized way of interacting with objects
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| assimilation | applying an old schema to new objects or problems
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| accommodation | modifying an old schema to fit a new object or problem
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| equilibration | the establishment of harmony or balance between assimilation and accommodation
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| sensorimotor stage | birth - 2 years
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| preoperational stage | 2 years - 7 years
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| concrete operations stage | 7 years - 11 years
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| formal operations stage | 11 years onward
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| object permanence | the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them
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| operations | reversible mental processes
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| egocentric | the child sees the world as centered around himself/herself and cannot easily take another person's perspective
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| theory of mind | an understanding that other people have a mind, too, and that each person knows some things that other people don't know
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| conservation | understand that objects conserve such properties as number, length, volume, area, and mass after changes in the shape or arrangement
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| stage of formal operations | mental processes that deal with abstract, hypothetical situations; demand logical, deductive reasoning and systematic planning
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| zone of proximal development | distance between what a child can do alone and what he can do with help
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| attachment | a long term feeling of closeness toward another person
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| identity crisis | when an adolescent is concerned with decisions about the future and the quest for self-understanding
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| identity diffusion | those who have not yet given any serious thought to making any decisions and who have no clear sense of identity
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| identity moratorium | considering the issues but not yet making decisions
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| identity foreclosure | a state of reaching firm decisions without much thought
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| identity achievement | outcome of having explored various possible identities and then making one's own decisions
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| midlife transition | a time when they reassess their personal goals, set new ones, and prepare for the rest of life
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| terror-management theory | use cope with our fear of death by avoiding thoughts about death, and by affirming a world view that provides self-esteem, hope, and value in life
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| sex roles | the different activities expected of males and females
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| androgyny | the ability to display both male and female characteristics
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| biculturalism | partial identification with two cultures
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| authoritative parents | parents who set high standards and impose controls, but are also warm and responsive to the child's communications
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| authoritarian parents | set firm controls, but tend to be emotionally more distant from the child
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| permissive parents | are warm and loving but undemanding
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| indifferent or uninvolved parents | spend little time with their children and do little more than provide them with food and shelter
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| behaviorist | insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, not mental processes
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| methodological behaviorists | study only the events that they can measure and observe
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| intervening variable | something that we cannot directly observe but that links a variety of procedures to a variety of possible responses
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| radical behaviorists | deny that hunger, fear, or other internal, private events cause behavior
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| stimulus-response psychology | the attempt to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response
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| unconditioned reflexes | between a stimulus such as food and a response such as secreting digestive juices
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| classical (Pavlovian) conditioning | the process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli-a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response
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| unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | an event that automatically elicits an unconditioned response
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| unconditioned response (UCR) | an action the the unconditioned stimulus elicits
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| conditioned stimulus (CS) | response to it depends on the preceding conditions
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| conditioned response (CR) | whatever response the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning (training) procedure
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| acquisition | process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response
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| extinction | to extinguish a classically conditioned response, repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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| stimulus generalization | extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli
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| spontaneous recovery | a temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay
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| discriminate | respond differently because the two stimuli predict different outcomes
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| drug tolerance | users of certain drugs experience progressively weaker effects after taking the drugs repeatedly
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| blocking effect | the previously established association to one stimulus blocks the formation of an association to the added stimulus
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| learning curve | a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over the course of learning
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| reinforcement | the process of increasing the future probability of the most recent response
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| operant (instrumental) conditioning | the process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcement after a response
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| visceral responses | responses of the internal organs
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| skeletal responses | movements of leg muscles, arm muscles, etc.
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| reinforcer | an event that follows a response and increases the later probability or frequency of the response
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| primary reinforcers | are reinforcing because of their own properties
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| secondary reinforcers | became reinforcing because of previous experiences
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| punishment | decreases the probability of a response
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| positive reinforcement | the presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior
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| passive avoidance learning | the individual learns to avoid an outcome by being passive
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| negative reinforcement | a kind of reinforcement, and therefore, it increases the frequency of a behavior
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| reinforcement | absence of something
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| escape learning | if the response stops an outcome
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| avoidance learning | if it prevents the outcome altogether
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| negative punishment | punishment by avoiding something good
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| omission training | the omission of the response leads to restoration of the usual privileges
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| extinction | occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements
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| similar generalization | the more similar a new stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus, the more likely is the same response
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| discrimination | yielding a response to one stimulus and not the other
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| discriminative stimulus | a stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate
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| stimulus control | the ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others
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| shaping | establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations to it
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| chaining | reinforcing each behavior with the opportunity to engage in the next one
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| continuous reinforcement | provide reinforcement for every correct response
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| intermittent reinforcement | reinforcement for some responses and not for other
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| schedules of reinforcement | rules for the delivery of reinforcement
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| fixed-ratio schedule | provides reinforcement only after a certain number of correct responses
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| variable-ratio schedule | reinforcement occurs after a variable number of correct responses
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| fixed-interval schedule | provides reinforcement for the first response after a specific time interval
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| variable-interval schedule | reinforcement is available after a variable amount of time
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| applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) | a psychologist tries to remove the reinforcers for unwanted behaviors and provides reinforcers for more acceptable behaviors
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| preparedness | concept that evolution has prepared us to learn some associations more easily than others
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| conditioned taste aversion | associating a food with illness
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| sensitive period | early in first year of life where one learns most readily
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| social-learning approach | we learn about many behaviors by observing the behaviors of others
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| vicarious reinforcement (punishment) | substituting someone else's experience for your own
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| self-effacacy | the belief of being able to perform the task successfully
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