Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
PSY2012EXAM2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| stimuli | energies from the world around us that affect us in some way |
| receptors | specialized cells that convert environmental energies into signals for the nervous system |
| electromagnetic spectrum | the continuum of all the frequencies of radiated energy |
| pupil | adjustable opening in the eye |
| iris | the colored structure on the surface of the eye surrounding the pupil |
| retina | a layer of visual receptors covering the back surface of the eyeball |
| cornea | a rigid transparent structure on the outer surface of the eyeball |
| lens | a flexible structure that can vary in thickness |
| accomodate | to adjust its focus for objects at different distances |
| fovea | the central area of the human retina |
| vitreous humor | light passes through this clear jelly-like substance after passing through the pupil |
| cones | adapted for color vision, daytime vision, and detailed vision |
| rods | adapted for vision in dim light |
| dark adaption | gradual improvement in the ability to see in dim light |
| ganglion cells | neurons that receive their input from the bipolar cells |
| optic nerve | the axons from the ganglion cells join to form this |
| blind spot | the area of the retina through which the optic nerve exits |
| opponent process theory | We perceive color in terms of paired opposites- red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus black. |
| negative afterimages | experiences of one color after the removal of another |
| color constancy | tendency of an object to appear nearly the same color under a variety of lighting conditions |
| retinex theory | we perceive color when the cerebral cortex compares various retinal patterns |
| trichromatic theory | a.k.a. Young-Helmholtz theory; states that our receptors respond to three primary colors: blue, green, and red |
| sensation | the conversion of energy from the environment into a pattern of response by the nervous system |
| perception | the interpretation of sensation information |
| sound waves | vibrations of the air or of another medium |
| pitch | perception closely related to frequency |
| loudness | perception that depends on the amplitude of sound waves |
| cochlea | fluid-filled canals of the snail-shaped organ that contains the receptors for hearing |
| conduction deafness | results when the bones connected to the eardrum fail to transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea |
| hertz (Hz) | the number vibrations (cycles) per second |
| frequency principle | a sound wave through the fluid of the cochlea vibrates all the hair cells, which produce action potentials in synchrony with the sound waves |
| volley principle | groups of hair cells respond to each vibration by producing an action potential |
| place principle | the highest frequency sounds vibrate hair cells near the stirrup end, and lower frequency sounds vibrate hair cells at points farther along the membrane |
| vestibular sense | detects the tilt of the head, acceleration of the head, and orientation of the head with respect to gravity |
| semicircular canals | lined with hair cells and filled with a jellylike substance |
| otolith organs | report the direction of gravity and excite different sets of hair cells |
| cutaneous senses | skin senses (a.k.a. somatosensory system) |
| histamine | chemical released by tissues recovering from an injury or reacting to a mosquito bite |
| anterior cingulate cortex | brain area responsive to the emotional aspect |
| gate theory | the idea that pain messages must pass through a gate, presumably in the spinal cord, that can block the messages |
| substance P | neurotransmitter released by intense pain |
| endorphins | neurotransmitters that inhibit the release of substance P and thereby weaken pain sensations |
| capsaicin | stimulates receptors that respond to painful heat |
| phantom limb | continuing sensations, including pain, in a limb long after it has been amputated |
| taste | detects chemicals on the tongue, governs eating and drinking |
| taste buds | located on the folds on the surface of the tongue |
| olfaction | sense of smell |
| pheromones | chemicals mammals release into the environment |
| synesthesia | condition in which a stimulus of one type, such as sound, also elicits another experience, such as color |
| vomeronasal organ | set of receptors near, but separate from, the standard olfactory receptors |
| just noticeable difference (JND) | the smallest difference that people could detect between one stimulus and another |
| absolute sensory threshold | the intensity at which a given individual detects a stimulus 50% of the time |
| "hit" | reporting the presence of a stimulus |
| "correct rejection" | reporting the absence of a stimulus |
| "miss" | failing to detect a stimulus that was present |
| "false alarm" | reporting a stimulus when none was present |
| signal-detection theory | the study of people's tendencies to make hits, correct rejections, misses, and false alarms |
| subliminal perception | the idea that stimuli sometimes influence our behavior even when they are presented so faintly or briefly that we do not perceive them consciously |
| brightness contrast | the increase or decrease in an object's apparent brightness by comparison to objects around it |
| feature detectors | specialized neurons in the visual cortex that respond to the presence of simple features, such as lines and angles |
| Gestalt psychology | field that focuses on our ability to perceive overall patterns (suggest feature detectors are not enough) |
| bottum-up process | tiny elements combine to produce larger items |
| top-down process | applying all experience and expectations to interpret what each item must be in context |
| figure and ground | object from the background |
| reversible figures | stimuli that can be perceived in more than one way |
| proximity | tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group |
| similarity | tendency to perceive objects that resemble each other as a group |
| continuation | filling in of the gaps |
| closure | imagining the rest of the figure |
| common fate | perceiving objects as part of the same group if they change or move in similar ways at the same time |
| good figure | simple, familiar, symmetrical figure |
| visual constancy | tendency to perceive objects as keeping their shape, size, and color, despite certain distortions in the light pattern reaching our retinas |
| induced movements | incorrectly perceive the object as moving against a stationary background (apparent movement) |
| stroboscopic movement | illusion of movement created by a rapid succession of stationary images |
| depth-perception | perception of distance (depending on several factors) |
| retinal disparity | the difference in the apparent position of an object as seen by the left and right retinas |
| convergence | degree to which they turn into focus on a close object |
| binocular cues | depend on both eyes |
| monocular cues | enable someone to judge depth and distance with just one eye |
| motion parallax | the difference in speed of movement of images across the retina as you travel |
| optical illusion | misinterpretation of a visual stimulus |
| moon illusion | the moon at the horizon appears about 30% larger than it appears when it is higher in the sky |
| chromosomes | strands of hereditary material |
| genes | sections along each chromosome that control the chemical reactions that direct development |
| dominant | a single copy of the gene is sufficient to produce its effect |
| recessive | effects appear only if the dominant gene is absent |
| sex chromosomes | determine whether an individual develops as a male or as a female |
| sex-linked genes (x-linked genes) | genes located on the x-chromosome |
| sex-limited gene | occurs equally in both sexes but exerts its effects mainly or entirely in one or the other |
| heritability | an estimate of the variance within a population that is due to heredity [ranges from 1-0] |
| multiplier effect | a small initial advantage in some behavior, possibly genetic in origin, alters the environment and magnifies that advantage |
| monozygotic twins | develop from a single-fertilized egg and therefore have identical genes [same sex only] |
| dizygotic twins | develop from two eggs and share only half their genes [like brothers and sisters do] |
| interaction | an instance in which the effect of one variable depends on some other variable |
| temperament | the tendency to be active or inactive, outgoing or reserved, and to respond vigorously or quietly to new stimuli |
| Phenylketonuria (PKU) | inherited condition that, if untreated, leads to mental retardation |
| phenylalanine | common constituent of proteins |
| zygote | fertilized egg cell |
| fetus | about 8 weeks after conception |
| fetal alcohol syndrome | a condition marked by stunted growth of the face head and body; malformations of the face, heart, and ears; and nervous system damage, including seizures, hyperactivity, learning disabilities, and mental retardation |
| habituation | decreased response to a repeated stimulus |
| dishabituation | when a change in a stimulus increases a previously habituated response |
| cross-sectional study | compares groups of individuals of different ages at the same time |
| longitudinal study | follows a single group of individuals as they develop |
| selective attrition | the tendency for certain kinds of people to drop our of a study |
| sequential designs | researchers start with groups of people of different ages, studied at the same time, and then study them again at one or more later times |
| cohort | a group of people born at a particular time or a group of people who enter an organization at a particular time |
| schema | an organized way of interacting with objects |
| assimilation | applying an old schema to new objects or problems |
| accommodation | modifying an old schema to fit a new object or problem |
| equilibration | the establishment of harmony or balance between assimilation and accommodation |
| sensorimotor stage | birth - 2 years |
| preoperational stage | 2 years - 7 years |
| concrete operations stage | 7 years - 11 years |
| formal operations stage | 11 years onward |
| object permanence | the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them |
| operations | reversible mental processes |
| egocentric | the child sees the world as centered around himself/herself and cannot easily take another person's perspective |
| theory of mind | an understanding that other people have a mind, too, and that each person knows some things that other people don't know |
| conservation | understand that objects conserve such properties as number, length, volume, area, and mass after changes in the shape or arrangement |
| stage of formal operations | mental processes that deal with abstract, hypothetical situations; demand logical, deductive reasoning and systematic planning |
| zone of proximal development | distance between what a child can do alone and what he can do with help |
| attachment | a long term feeling of closeness toward another person |
| identity crisis | when an adolescent is concerned with decisions about the future and the quest for self-understanding |
| identity diffusion | those who have not yet given any serious thought to making any decisions and who have no clear sense of identity |
| identity moratorium | considering the issues but not yet making decisions |
| identity foreclosure | a state of reaching firm decisions without much thought |
| identity achievement | outcome of having explored various possible identities and then making one's own decisions |
| midlife transition | a time when they reassess their personal goals, set new ones, and prepare for the rest of life |
| terror-management theory | use cope with our fear of death by avoiding thoughts about death, and by affirming a world view that provides self-esteem, hope, and value in life |
| sex roles | the different activities expected of males and females |
| androgyny | the ability to display both male and female characteristics |
| biculturalism | partial identification with two cultures |
| authoritative parents | parents who set high standards and impose controls, but are also warm and responsive to the child's communications |
| authoritarian parents | set firm controls, but tend to be emotionally more distant from the child |
| permissive parents | are warm and loving but undemanding |
| indifferent or uninvolved parents | spend little time with their children and do little more than provide them with food and shelter |
| behaviorist | insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, not mental processes |
| methodological behaviorists | study only the events that they can measure and observe |
| intervening variable | something that we cannot directly observe but that links a variety of procedures to a variety of possible responses |
| radical behaviorists | deny that hunger, fear, or other internal, private events cause behavior |
| stimulus-response psychology | the attempt to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response |
| unconditioned reflexes | between a stimulus such as food and a response such as secreting digestive juices |
| classical (Pavlovian) conditioning | the process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli-a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response |
| unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | an event that automatically elicits an unconditioned response |
| unconditioned response (UCR) | an action the the unconditioned stimulus elicits |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | response to it depends on the preceding conditions |
| conditioned response (CR) | whatever response the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning (training) procedure |
| acquisition | process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response |
| extinction | to extinguish a classically conditioned response, repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) |
| stimulus generalization | extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli |
| spontaneous recovery | a temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay |
| discriminate | respond differently because the two stimuli predict different outcomes |
| drug tolerance | users of certain drugs experience progressively weaker effects after taking the drugs repeatedly |
| blocking effect | the previously established association to one stimulus blocks the formation of an association to the added stimulus |
| learning curve | a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over the course of learning |
| reinforcement | the process of increasing the future probability of the most recent response |
| operant (instrumental) conditioning | the process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcement after a response |
| visceral responses | responses of the internal organs |
| skeletal responses | movements of leg muscles, arm muscles, etc. |
| reinforcer | an event that follows a response and increases the later probability or frequency of the response |
| primary reinforcers | are reinforcing because of their own properties |
| secondary reinforcers | became reinforcing because of previous experiences |
| punishment | decreases the probability of a response |
| positive reinforcement | the presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior |
| passive avoidance learning | the individual learns to avoid an outcome by being passive |
| negative reinforcement | a kind of reinforcement, and therefore, it increases the frequency of a behavior |
| reinforcement | absence of something |
| escape learning | if the response stops an outcome |
| avoidance learning | if it prevents the outcome altogether |
| negative punishment | punishment by avoiding something good |
| omission training | the omission of the response leads to restoration of the usual privileges |
| extinction | occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements |
| similar generalization | the more similar a new stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus, the more likely is the same response |
| discrimination | yielding a response to one stimulus and not the other |
| discriminative stimulus | a stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate |
| stimulus control | the ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others |
| shaping | establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations to it |
| chaining | reinforcing each behavior with the opportunity to engage in the next one |
| continuous reinforcement | provide reinforcement for every correct response |
| intermittent reinforcement | reinforcement for some responses and not for other |
| schedules of reinforcement | rules for the delivery of reinforcement |
| fixed-ratio schedule | provides reinforcement only after a certain number of correct responses |
| variable-ratio schedule | reinforcement occurs after a variable number of correct responses |
| fixed-interval schedule | provides reinforcement for the first response after a specific time interval |
| variable-interval schedule | reinforcement is available after a variable amount of time |
| applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) | a psychologist tries to remove the reinforcers for unwanted behaviors and provides reinforcers for more acceptable behaviors |
| preparedness | concept that evolution has prepared us to learn some associations more easily than others |
| conditioned taste aversion | associating a food with illness |
| sensitive period | early in first year of life where one learns most readily |
| social-learning approach | we learn about many behaviors by observing the behaviors of others |
| vicarious reinforcement (punishment) | substituting someone else's experience for your own |
| self-effacacy | the belief of being able to perform the task successfully |
Created by:
n00675590
Popular Psychology sets