PSY2012EXAM2 Word Scramble
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| Question | Answer |
| stimuli | energies from the world around us that affect us in some way |
| receptors | specialized cells that convert environmental energies into signals for the nervous system |
| electromagnetic spectrum | the continuum of all the frequencies of radiated energy |
| pupil | adjustable opening in the eye |
| iris | the colored structure on the surface of the eye surrounding the pupil |
| retina | a layer of visual receptors covering the back surface of the eyeball |
| cornea | a rigid transparent structure on the outer surface of the eyeball |
| lens | a flexible structure that can vary in thickness |
| accomodate | to adjust its focus for objects at different distances |
| fovea | the central area of the human retina |
| vitreous humor | light passes through this clear jelly-like substance after passing through the pupil |
| cones | adapted for color vision, daytime vision, and detailed vision |
| rods | adapted for vision in dim light |
| dark adaption | gradual improvement in the ability to see in dim light |
| ganglion cells | neurons that receive their input from the bipolar cells |
| optic nerve | the axons from the ganglion cells join to form this |
| blind spot | the area of the retina through which the optic nerve exits |
| opponent process theory | We perceive color in terms of paired opposites- red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus black. |
| negative afterimages | experiences of one color after the removal of another |
| color constancy | tendency of an object to appear nearly the same color under a variety of lighting conditions |
| retinex theory | we perceive color when the cerebral cortex compares various retinal patterns |
| trichromatic theory | a.k.a. Young-Helmholtz theory; states that our receptors respond to three primary colors: blue, green, and red |
| sensation | the conversion of energy from the environment into a pattern of response by the nervous system |
| perception | the interpretation of sensation information |
| sound waves | vibrations of the air or of another medium |
| pitch | perception closely related to frequency |
| loudness | perception that depends on the amplitude of sound waves |
| cochlea | fluid-filled canals of the snail-shaped organ that contains the receptors for hearing |
| conduction deafness | results when the bones connected to the eardrum fail to transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea |
| hertz (Hz) | the number vibrations (cycles) per second |
| frequency principle | a sound wave through the fluid of the cochlea vibrates all the hair cells, which produce action potentials in synchrony with the sound waves |
| volley principle | groups of hair cells respond to each vibration by producing an action potential |
| place principle | the highest frequency sounds vibrate hair cells near the stirrup end, and lower frequency sounds vibrate hair cells at points farther along the membrane |
| vestibular sense | detects the tilt of the head, acceleration of the head, and orientation of the head with respect to gravity |
| semicircular canals | lined with hair cells and filled with a jellylike substance |
| otolith organs | report the direction of gravity and excite different sets of hair cells |
| cutaneous senses | skin senses (a.k.a. somatosensory system) |
| histamine | chemical released by tissues recovering from an injury or reacting to a mosquito bite |
| anterior cingulate cortex | brain area responsive to the emotional aspect |
| gate theory | the idea that pain messages must pass through a gate, presumably in the spinal cord, that can block the messages |
| substance P | neurotransmitter released by intense pain |
| endorphins | neurotransmitters that inhibit the release of substance P and thereby weaken pain sensations |
| capsaicin | stimulates receptors that respond to painful heat |
| phantom limb | continuing sensations, including pain, in a limb long after it has been amputated |
| taste | detects chemicals on the tongue, governs eating and drinking |
| taste buds | located on the folds on the surface of the tongue |
| olfaction | sense of smell |
| pheromones | chemicals mammals release into the environment |
| synesthesia | condition in which a stimulus of one type, such as sound, also elicits another experience, such as color |
| vomeronasal organ | set of receptors near, but separate from, the standard olfactory receptors |
| just noticeable difference (JND) | the smallest difference that people could detect between one stimulus and another |
| absolute sensory threshold | the intensity at which a given individual detects a stimulus 50% of the time |
| "hit" | reporting the presence of a stimulus |
| "correct rejection" | reporting the absence of a stimulus |
| "miss" | failing to detect a stimulus that was present |
| "false alarm" | reporting a stimulus when none was present |
| signal-detection theory | the study of people's tendencies to make hits, correct rejections, misses, and false alarms |
| subliminal perception | the idea that stimuli sometimes influence our behavior even when they are presented so faintly or briefly that we do not perceive them consciously |
| brightness contrast | the increase or decrease in an object's apparent brightness by comparison to objects around it |
| feature detectors | specialized neurons in the visual cortex that respond to the presence of simple features, such as lines and angles |
| Gestalt psychology | field that focuses on our ability to perceive overall patterns (suggest feature detectors are not enough) |
| bottum-up process | tiny elements combine to produce larger items |
| top-down process | applying all experience and expectations to interpret what each item must be in context |
| figure and ground | object from the background |
| reversible figures | stimuli that can be perceived in more than one way |
| proximity | tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group |
| similarity | tendency to perceive objects that resemble each other as a group |
| continuation | filling in of the gaps |
| closure | imagining the rest of the figure |
| common fate | perceiving objects as part of the same group if they change or move in similar ways at the same time |
| good figure | simple, familiar, symmetrical figure |
| visual constancy | tendency to perceive objects as keeping their shape, size, and color, despite certain distortions in the light pattern reaching our retinas |
| induced movements | incorrectly perceive the object as moving against a stationary background (apparent movement) |
| stroboscopic movement | illusion of movement created by a rapid succession of stationary images |
| depth-perception | perception of distance (depending on several factors) |
| retinal disparity | the difference in the apparent position of an object as seen by the left and right retinas |
| convergence | degree to which they turn into focus on a close object |
| binocular cues | depend on both eyes |
| monocular cues | enable someone to judge depth and distance with just one eye |
| motion parallax | the difference in speed of movement of images across the retina as you travel |
| optical illusion | misinterpretation of a visual stimulus |
| moon illusion | the moon at the horizon appears about 30% larger than it appears when it is higher in the sky |
| chromosomes | strands of hereditary material |
| genes | sections along each chromosome that control the chemical reactions that direct development |
| dominant | a single copy of the gene is sufficient to produce its effect |
| recessive | effects appear only if the dominant gene is absent |
| sex chromosomes | determine whether an individual develops as a male or as a female |
| sex-linked genes (x-linked genes) | genes located on the x-chromosome |
| sex-limited gene | occurs equally in both sexes but exerts its effects mainly or entirely in one or the other |
| heritability | an estimate of the variance within a population that is due to heredity [ranges from 1-0] |
| multiplier effect | a small initial advantage in some behavior, possibly genetic in origin, alters the environment and magnifies that advantage |
| monozygotic twins | develop from a single-fertilized egg and therefore have identical genes [same sex only] |
| dizygotic twins | develop from two eggs and share only half their genes [like brothers and sisters do] |
| interaction | an instance in which the effect of one variable depends on some other variable |
| temperament | the tendency to be active or inactive, outgoing or reserved, and to respond vigorously or quietly to new stimuli |
| Phenylketonuria (PKU) | inherited condition that, if untreated, leads to mental retardation |
| phenylalanine | common constituent of proteins |
| zygote | fertilized egg cell |
| fetus | about 8 weeks after conception |
| fetal alcohol syndrome | a condition marked by stunted growth of the face head and body; malformations of the face, heart, and ears; and nervous system damage, including seizures, hyperactivity, learning disabilities, and mental retardation |
| habituation | decreased response to a repeated stimulus |
| dishabituation | when a change in a stimulus increases a previously habituated response |
| cross-sectional study | compares groups of individuals of different ages at the same time |
| longitudinal study | follows a single group of individuals as they develop |
| selective attrition | the tendency for certain kinds of people to drop our of a study |
| sequential designs | researchers start with groups of people of different ages, studied at the same time, and then study them again at one or more later times |
| cohort | a group of people born at a particular time or a group of people who enter an organization at a particular time |
| schema | an organized way of interacting with objects |
| assimilation | applying an old schema to new objects or problems |
| accommodation | modifying an old schema to fit a new object or problem |
| equilibration | the establishment of harmony or balance between assimilation and accommodation |
| sensorimotor stage | birth - 2 years |
| preoperational stage | 2 years - 7 years |
| concrete operations stage | 7 years - 11 years |
| formal operations stage | 11 years onward |
| object permanence | the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them |
| operations | reversible mental processes |
| egocentric | the child sees the world as centered around himself/herself and cannot easily take another person's perspective |
| theory of mind | an understanding that other people have a mind, too, and that each person knows some things that other people don't know |
| conservation | understand that objects conserve such properties as number, length, volume, area, and mass after changes in the shape or arrangement |
| stage of formal operations | mental processes that deal with abstract, hypothetical situations; demand logical, deductive reasoning and systematic planning |
| zone of proximal development | distance between what a child can do alone and what he can do with help |
| attachment | a long term feeling of closeness toward another person |
| identity crisis | when an adolescent is concerned with decisions about the future and the quest for self-understanding |
| identity diffusion | those who have not yet given any serious thought to making any decisions and who have no clear sense of identity |
| identity moratorium | considering the issues but not yet making decisions |
| identity foreclosure | a state of reaching firm decisions without much thought |
| identity achievement | outcome of having explored various possible identities and then making one's own decisions |
| midlife transition | a time when they reassess their personal goals, set new ones, and prepare for the rest of life |
| terror-management theory | use cope with our fear of death by avoiding thoughts about death, and by affirming a world view that provides self-esteem, hope, and value in life |
| sex roles | the different activities expected of males and females |
| androgyny | the ability to display both male and female characteristics |
| biculturalism | partial identification with two cultures |
| authoritative parents | parents who set high standards and impose controls, but are also warm and responsive to the child's communications |
| authoritarian parents | set firm controls, but tend to be emotionally more distant from the child |
| permissive parents | are warm and loving but undemanding |
| indifferent or uninvolved parents | spend little time with their children and do little more than provide them with food and shelter |
| behaviorist | insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, not mental processes |
| methodological behaviorists | study only the events that they can measure and observe |
| intervening variable | something that we cannot directly observe but that links a variety of procedures to a variety of possible responses |
| radical behaviorists | deny that hunger, fear, or other internal, private events cause behavior |
| stimulus-response psychology | the attempt to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response |
| unconditioned reflexes | between a stimulus such as food and a response such as secreting digestive juices |
| classical (Pavlovian) conditioning | the process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli-a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response |
| unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | an event that automatically elicits an unconditioned response |
| unconditioned response (UCR) | an action the the unconditioned stimulus elicits |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | response to it depends on the preceding conditions |
| conditioned response (CR) | whatever response the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning (training) procedure |
| acquisition | process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response |
| extinction | to extinguish a classically conditioned response, repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) |
| stimulus generalization | extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli |
| spontaneous recovery | a temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay |
| discriminate | respond differently because the two stimuli predict different outcomes |
| drug tolerance | users of certain drugs experience progressively weaker effects after taking the drugs repeatedly |
| blocking effect | the previously established association to one stimulus blocks the formation of an association to the added stimulus |
| learning curve | a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over the course of learning |
| reinforcement | the process of increasing the future probability of the most recent response |
| operant (instrumental) conditioning | the process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcement after a response |
| visceral responses | responses of the internal organs |
| skeletal responses | movements of leg muscles, arm muscles, etc. |
| reinforcer | an event that follows a response and increases the later probability or frequency of the response |
| primary reinforcers | are reinforcing because of their own properties |
| secondary reinforcers | became reinforcing because of previous experiences |
| punishment | decreases the probability of a response |
| positive reinforcement | the presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior |
| passive avoidance learning | the individual learns to avoid an outcome by being passive |
| negative reinforcement | a kind of reinforcement, and therefore, it increases the frequency of a behavior |
| reinforcement | absence of something |
| escape learning | if the response stops an outcome |
| avoidance learning | if it prevents the outcome altogether |
| negative punishment | punishment by avoiding something good |
| omission training | the omission of the response leads to restoration of the usual privileges |
| extinction | occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements |
| similar generalization | the more similar a new stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus, the more likely is the same response |
| discrimination | yielding a response to one stimulus and not the other |
| discriminative stimulus | a stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate |
| stimulus control | the ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others |
| shaping | establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations to it |
| chaining | reinforcing each behavior with the opportunity to engage in the next one |
| continuous reinforcement | provide reinforcement for every correct response |
| intermittent reinforcement | reinforcement for some responses and not for other |
| schedules of reinforcement | rules for the delivery of reinforcement |
| fixed-ratio schedule | provides reinforcement only after a certain number of correct responses |
| variable-ratio schedule | reinforcement occurs after a variable number of correct responses |
| fixed-interval schedule | provides reinforcement for the first response after a specific time interval |
| variable-interval schedule | reinforcement is available after a variable amount of time |
| applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) | a psychologist tries to remove the reinforcers for unwanted behaviors and provides reinforcers for more acceptable behaviors |
| preparedness | concept that evolution has prepared us to learn some associations more easily than others |
| conditioned taste aversion | associating a food with illness |
| sensitive period | early in first year of life where one learns most readily |
| social-learning approach | we learn about many behaviors by observing the behaviors of others |
| vicarious reinforcement (punishment) | substituting someone else's experience for your own |
| self-effacacy | the belief of being able to perform the task successfully |
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