BSCI 430 Exam 1
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| totipotent | the type of cells that give rise to all cell types (germ cells) *
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| apotent | the type of cells that only give rise to itself (somatic) *
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| pluripotent | the type of stem cells that are capable of developing into most, but not all, of the body's cell types *
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| germ cells | - cells that produce the next generation
- undergo both mitosis and meiosis
- can be 1n or 2n *
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| somatic cells | - cells that produce the current generation
- only undergo mitosis
- usually 2n (but can be 3n or 4n) *
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| gonads | where do germline cells migrate to in the current generation before differentiating into sperm/egg *
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| polar granules | ________ _________ in the pole (germ) plasma contain stored mRNAs *
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| transcription | in germ cells in the embryo, their genomes are repressed in _____________ until later in development *
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| chromosomal | ______________ sex determination is the process by which sex is determined based on the genes on their chromosome *
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| environmental | ____________________ sex determination is the process by which the sex of the offspring is determined by environmental factors such as temperature *
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| homogametic | In mammals, females are _______________ (XX) *
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| sry | In mammals, the Y chromosome contains the ________ gene, which is the main gene that determines whether the offspring is male or female *
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| gametogenesis | the development of germ cells (gametes) *
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| acrosome | the Golgi apparatus of the sperm forms into the _________ which excretes enzymes so that sperm can penetrate the egg *
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| fuses | the sperm activates development when the sperm head ___________ with the egg *
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| 2 | how many centrioles are needed for division *
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| seminiferous tubules | this is specifically where sperm development occurs in the tests *
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| vas deferens | long tube that connects the epididymis to the urethra where sperm is secreted to before ejaculation *
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| mitosis | spermatogonia undergo __________ to form the primary spermatocytes (2n) (first step in spermatogenesis) *
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| meiosis I | primary spermatocytes (2n) undergo ___________ to form secondary spermatocytes (n) *
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| centriole | flagellum formation of the sperm is controlled by the ____________ *
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| fertilization | sperm tails fall off during _____________ *
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| hermaphrodites | _____________ have round sperm with no tails because they fertilize themselves (sperm doesn't have to travel far) *
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| inactive | the chromatin within sperm is highly condensed and _______________ *
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| ATP | metabolism is restricted to ____________ generation by mitochondria to beat the posterior flagellum *
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| ootid | the female gamete *
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| female | the _____________ gamete completely support development of the embryo and provide ALL cytoplasm to the zygote, including most organelles and molecular components *
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| 2 | how many polar bodies does oogenesis produce *
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| mitosis | oogonium undergoes _______________ to form the primary oocyte (2n) *
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| spermatids | secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II to form 4 __________ which will eventually form a tail and become sperm *
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| polar body | the primary oocyte (2n) will undergo meiosis I to form 1 secondary oocyte and 1 ____________ ____________ *
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| meiosis II | the secondary oocyte will undergo _____________________ to form 1 ootid and a second polar body *
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| decrease | in spermatogenesis, there is a dramatic ______________ in cell volume and complete shutdown of RNA and protein sythesis *
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| increase | in oogenesis, there is a dramatic _________________ in cell volume and RNA and protein synthesis *
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| polar bodies | ___________ ______________ mark the site where meiotic divisions occur *
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| polarized | animal eggs (mature oocytes) are highly ___________ and cytoplasm-enriched cells *
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| animal | the ___________ pole is always defined by the position of the polar body *
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| alecithal | eggs with no yolk; all mammals except monotremes (platypuses) *
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| isolecithal | eggs that have little yolk with even distribution; sea urchins, some mollusks, and tunicates *
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| mesolecithal | eggs with moderate amounts of yolk with vegetal distribution; amphibians *
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| telolecithal | eggs with dense yolk packed throughout most of the cell; fish, reptiles, birds, and cephalopod mollusks. *
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| centrolecithal | eggs with dense yolk packed in the central region of the cell, leaving cytoplasm at the periphery; insects *
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| egg follicle | - surrounds eggs at some point in life
- can be cellular, acellular, or both
- can contain multiple cell types *
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| follicle cells | these cells are somatic line cells that protect the egg and enhance the prospects for fertilization
- found in most mammals *
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| nurse cells | these cells are germ-line cells that are usually sister cells of primary oocytes
- they support and provide resources for growing oocytes
- typically found in insect egg follicle
- not found in mammals *
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| jelly layer | in the first step of Sperm Penetration of Sea Urchin Egg Envelope, sperm comes in contact with, and the acrosome reacts to digest the ___________ ________
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| cumulus layer | in the first step of the Sperm Penetration of Mouse Egg Envelope, sperm is activated by female reproductive tract and enter the __________ ________
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| f-actin | both sea urchins and mammals use acrosomal enzymes and sperm tail BUT sea urchins also use __-________ to get inside egg *
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| bindin | ___________ (on sperm) and __________ receptor (on egg) are species-specific and evolve rapidly which allow species recognition in sperm and eggs of sea urchins
- not needed for mammals because of interior ejaculation (same word for both slots) *
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| polyspermy | entry of more than one sperm; means almost certain death to an egg *
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| fast block | _______ ___________ of polyspermy in sea urchins (step 1)
- temporary block to extra sperm is caused by a change in Vm of egg cell membrane based on influx of Na+ ions (sea water)
- electrical block *
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| slow block | _______ __________ of polyspermy in sea urchins (step 2)
- permanent fertilization of a fertilization envelope that lifts excess sperm away from egg surface as it is formed *
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| fertilization envelope | formation of the __________ ______________
1. caused by exocytosis of cortical granules located just below the egg PM
2. cortical granules subsequently fuse to egg PM and release contents (enzymes and hyalin)
3. contents harden to form hyaline layer *
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| calcium wave | cortical granule exocytosis is triggered by ________ ____________
- sperm entry triggers localized ion release by ER
- spreads (positive feedback)
- once released, free ions are rapidly taken back up into the ER *
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| aster | in the first step of Pronuclear Fusion, the sperm pro-nucleus (n) enters the eggs, nuclear envelope dissolves, a sperm _____________ is formed from sperm centriole and it moves with chromosomes to center of the egg
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| zinc spark | in addition to a calcium wave, human eggs produce a _______ ___________, in which its size is a direct measure of the quality of the egg and its ability to develop (IVF)
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| tunicates | closest living relative of vertebrates *
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| grow | during cleavage, the embryo does not _______ *
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| cleavage | ______________ in tunicates
- can be equal or unequal
- it begins with equal cuts --> later unequal cuts occur --> indicate differentiation of cell fates
- initially rapid and synchronous --> later slow + asynchronous
- no growth
- not net migration
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| G1, G2 | in the cleavage period, there are short cell cycles that lack _____ and _____ periods --> rapid growth in cell number without enlargement *
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| maternal | during cleavage, there is complete influence of the _________ genome *
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| Hertwig's three rules | 1. mitotic apparatus tends to be positioned at center of the cell before division
2. The long axis of the MSA tends to be aligned || to the long axis of the cell
3. the cytokinesis plane (contractile ring) forms on a plane ⊥ to the long axis
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| 3, perpendicular | Rule #___ of Hertwig's rule is never broken: it states that the cytokinesis plane (contractile ring) forms on a plane ___________ to the long axis *
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| centriole activating bodies | ________ ___________ ___________ (CABs) organelles associated with the PM that attract centrioles by attaching the mitotic spindle to one side of the cell to cause unequal cleavage. --> breaks Hertwig rule 1
(breaks Hertwig's 1st rule) *
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| yolk | due to its density, ____________ displaces the mitotic spindle away from the center of the cell *
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| astral rays | overlapping ____________ ____________, rather than the position of the metaphase plate, controls contractile ring formation and the position of the cytokinesis plane *
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| holoblastic | the term that describes complete cleavage *
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| meroblastic | the term that describes incomplete cleavage *
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| yolk | cleavage completeness is determined by the amount of ______________ (↑___________ = ↓completeness)
(same word for both blanks) *
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| radial | cleavage pattern symmetry in which there are many planes through the AV axis that divide the embryo into 2 equal parts *
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| bilateral | cleavage pattern symmetry in which there is only a single plane that divides the embryo into 2 equal mirror images *
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| mitotic spindle apparatus | the position of the ____________ ____________ ___________ is a determinant of whether the embryo undergoes regular, spiral, or rotational cleavage *
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| isolecithal, radial | echinoderms (such as starfish) are ______________ cells that undergo holoblastic, ___________ cleavage
(2 different terms, separate by comma) *
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| isolecithal, spiral | annelids and flatworms are _________________ cells that undergo holoblastic, __________ cleavage ---> alignment is ALWAYS off-centered
(2 different terms, separate by comma) *
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| isolecithal, bilateral | tunicates are ________________ cells that undergo holoblastic, ____________ cleavage
(2 different terms, separate by comma) *
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| alecithal, rotational | mammals are _____________ cells that undergo holoblastic, bilateral, _____________ cleavage
(2 different terms, separated by comma) *
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| mesolecithal, radial | amphibians are ________________ cells that undergo holoblastic, displaced ____________ cleavage, where the AP cells are smaller than the VP cells
(2 different terms, separate by comma) *
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| telolecithal, meroblastic | cephalopod mollusks are ___________________ cells that undergo ___________________, bilateral cleavage
(2 different terms, separate by comma) *
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| telolecithal, discoidal | fish, reptiles, and birds are _______________ cells that undergo meroblastic, __________________ cleavage
(2 different terms, separate by comma) *
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| discoidal | ________________ cleavage is a type of meroblastic cleavage in which a disk of cells is produced at the animal pole of the zygote (blastodisc) *
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| centrolecithal, superficial | insect are ________________ cells that undergo meroblastic, ___________________ cleavage
(2 different terms, separate by comma) *
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| spiral | ________________ cleavage breaks Hertwig's 2nd rules which states that the long axis of the mitotic spindle apparatus tends to be aligned parallel to the long axis of the cell *
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| placenta, embryo | the mammalian blastocyst has two kinds of cells
- trophoblast cells which are cells of the trophectoderm that become the _________________
- cells of inner cell mass that become the ______________
(2 different terms, separate by comma) *
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| gastrulation | the series of coordinated movements of blastomeres in which the blastula is reorganized to form a multilayer gastrula *
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| asynchronous, zygotic, migration | Transition from end of cleavage to beginning of gastrulation
- cell cycle lengths
- beginning of ____________ cell divisions
- beginning of ____________transcription
- beginning of net cell _______________
(3 different terms, separate by comma)
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| invagination | movement of cells in which the epithelium buckles into blastocoel at a single place *
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| involution | epithelium is broken at a single place and parts of the epithelium enter blastocoel and migrate as a sheet over the inner surface *
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| ingression | single cells break out of epithelium and migrate independently into blastocoel (cancer metastasis) *
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| delamination | sheets of cells break out of epithelium at 2 different places, migrate toward each other along its inner surface, and meet *
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| epiboly | epithelium expands to cover an entire surface, forcing cells ahead to undergo other movements, such as invagination or involution *
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| intercalation | cell in upper and lower epithelium layer converge to form single layer to expand epithelium *
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| convergent extension | cells in 2 adjacent epithelium layers converge to form a single layer which lengthens the epithelium *
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| vegetal | in embryos with moderate yolk, gastrulation begins near the ___________ pole *
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| animal | in embryos with large yolk, gastrulation occus on blastodisc in the _____________ pole region or in any location in periphery of the embryo *
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| blastopore | - site of internalization of surface cells during gastrulation
- develops into mouth/anus *
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| mouth | in protostomes, the blastopore is the precursor to the _________, which forms first
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| anus | in deuterostomes, the blastophore is the precursor to the __________, which forms first
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| mesenchyme | Sea Urchin Gastrulation:
1. epiboly of the ectoderm leads to the ingression of primary ______________ cells (form skeletal structure)
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| ingression | Frog Gastrulation
1. ____________ of bottle cells into interior
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| involution, convergent extension, Henderson's node | Bird Gastrulation
1. ______________________ occurs due to epiboly
2. _________________ ________________ elongates the primitive streak
3. the dorsal lip of the primitive streak is called ______________________ _____________ *
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| vitelline envelope | in the second step of Sperm Penetration of Sea Urchin Egg Envelope, the sperm head binds to the _____________ ___________
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| egg cell membrane | in the third step of Sperm Penetration of Sea Urchin Egg Envelope, fusion of the acrosomal process membrane and _______ _____ _____________ allows the centriole to be released into the egg as the rest of the sperm is degraded
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| zona pellucida | in the second step of Steps of Sperm Penetration of Mouse Egg Envelope, sperm binds to the _________ ___________ and an acrosomal reaction occurs which lyses a hole in it
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| egg cell membrane | in the third step of Steps of Sperm Penetration of Mouse Egg Envelope, the sperm fuses with the ______ _______ ___________ and the centriole is released into the egg
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| center | In the second step of pronuclear fusion, egg pro-nucleus (n) moves to _________ of egg and attaches to sperm aster
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| diploid | In the third step of pronuclear fusion, female pronuclear envelope dissolves and chromosomes mix to form _______ zygotic nucleus
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| invagination | Sea Urchin Gastrulation:
2. epiboly continues causing _________________
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| archenteron | Sea Urchin Gastrulation:
3. convergent extension elongates ________________
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| filipodia | Sea Urchin Gastrulation:
4. Ingression of secondary mesenchyme cells
5. ________________ extend from the archenteron tip and pull the archenteron up to AP
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| involution, invagination | Frog Gastrulation:
2. ____________________ of mesoderm cells creates dorsal lip
3. ____________________ of dorsal lip to form the archenteron displaces the blastocoel
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| ventral | Frog Gastrulation:
4. another set of bottle cells ingress to form the _____________ lip which causes a second round of involution in the opposite direction
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| intercalation, convergent extension | Frog Gastrulation:
5. _______________ of ectoderm and mesoderm
6. embryos lengthen via ______________ _____________ of ectoderm and mesoderm
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| nucleus | protamines are found in the sperm _______________
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| anterior/posterior | The ______________ axis separates the embryo into the future head and the future tail.
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| dorsal/ventral | The _____________ axis separates the embryo into the back and the front
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| left/right | The ___________ axis separates the body into the left and the right
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| bilateral | _____________ symmetry determines the three axes
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| radial | most animals progress from _______ to bilateral symmetry
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| neurulation | this process forms the neural tube and CNS; occurs at end of gastrulation
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| dorsal | in chordates, the CNS forms on the _________ side
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| ventral | in non-chordates, the CNS forms on the ____________ side
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| sperm entry | site of _________ ___________ determines the positions of the first cleavage plane and future embryonic axes
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| neural plate, invagination, ingression | In Neurulation in vertebrates
1. elongation of the epithelium forms the ___________ _________
2. ____________ of the neural plate
3. convergence
4. ______________ of neural crest
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| anterior | For a chick during neurulation, the dorsal lip (Henderson's node) elongates toward the _____________ to form the head
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| Just | The _________ Experiment found that the sperm entry site determines the 1st cleavage plane
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| gray crescent | In amphibians during neurulation, the ______ __________ forms 180 degrees from the sperm entry point
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| ventral | Sperm entry point becomes the future _________ pole
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| rotation, grey crescent, dorsal lip | Neurulation in amphibians
1. sperm enters egg
2. _____________ of the cortex around eggs
3. _________ __________ forms
4. _________ __________ forms on the grey crescent; start site of 1st cleavage
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| border | For mammals, the point of sperm entry makes the ___________ between the inner cell mass and the trophectoderm
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| primordial | pole cells enter the embryo via a cavity formed during gastrulation --> become the __________ germ cells
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| gonads | primordial germ cells migrate along the gut to the developing ___________
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| sex determination | once primordial germ cells reach the gonads, they undergo _____ _______________
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| mammalian | there is no germ plasm in _________ embryos
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| physically, division, transcription | germ cells act differently from somatic cells in the embryo:
1. _________ separated from somatic cells
2. cease _________ early during development
3. don't receive the same decision-making signals
4. genomes are repressed during __________ until later
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| male | The Simon and Suzie experiment showed that a genetically female (XX) mouse that is inserted with the sry gene (XX/sry) will develop _____________ genitalia.
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| flagellum, acrosome, condensation, cytoplasm | Important Events in spermiogenesis:
1. _________ forms (controlled by centriole)
2. golgi differentiation to the __________
3. nuclear and chromosome _________
4. tail forms
5. loss of almost all __________ and cytoplasmic organelles
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| spermiogenesis | __________ is the process of sperm differentiation
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| convergent | morphology of sperm is highly _________ in different organisms
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| 1:1 | oocyte to ootid ratio is
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| increase | in eggs, there is a massive _______ in RNA and protein synthesis
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| shutdown | in sperm there is complete __________ in RNA and protein synthesis
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| aequorin | The calcium wave can be detected by ________, a jellyfish
protein that becomes fluorescent only in the presence of free
cytoplasmic calcium
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| reversed | During process of sperm pronuclear development,
processes resulting in genome compaction that occurred during spermiogenesis are _______________
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| mRNA, sperm | Protein synthesis in the sea urchin egg is based on activation of
stored maternal _________ function triggered by ________ entry
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| Merogon | In the ________ experiment, it proved there was already mRNA in unfertilized sea urchin eggs.
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| calcium | cortical granule exocytosis is activated by _________ release from the endoplasmic reticulum
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| unequal | meiotic spindle apparatus position controls _________ cell division during meiosis because it migrates to the edge of the oocyte before hand
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| equal | Experiment: if you moved the meiotic spindle apparatus to the center of the oocyte, it would result in _________ cell division
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| astral rays | The Rappaport experiment proved that the overlap of __________ ______ determines the site of cytokinesis, rather than the metaphase plate
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| first, perpendicular, rotation, spindle | For sea urchins (The Regular First Three)
1. _________ cleavage plane is along the AV axis
2. second cleavage plane is along AV axis, __________ to the first
3. third cleavage is along the equator after a 90 degree _________ of the ________
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| mid-blastula transition | the beginning of zygotic transcription, representing end of cleavage and beginning of gastrulation, is called the ___-_____ _______________
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| lengthens, asynchronous, migration | End of cleavage --> beginning of gastrulation marked by
1. cell cycles ________
2. division becomes ___________
3. MBT
4. beginning of net cell __________
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| vegetal | Most embryos with moderate amounts of yolk begin gastrulation at or near the __________ pole
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| vegetal, animal | as yolk increases, the beginning point of gastrulation is displaced from the __________ pole to the __________ pole
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| archenteron | As gastrulation proceeds, the blastocoel is gradually obliterated and replaced by the _______________
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