Cognitive Psychology Exam #2
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| arousal | a degree of psychological excitation, responsitivity, and readiness for action, relative to a baseline
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| attention | the attentive cognitive processing of a limited amount of information from the vast amount of information available through the senses, in memory, and through cognitive processes, focus on a small subset of available stimuli
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| automatic processes | involves no conscious control
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| automatization | the process by which a procedure changes from being highly conscious to being relatively automatic; also termed proceduralization
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| binaural presentation | presenting the same two messages, or sometimes just one message, to both ears simulataneously
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| blindsight | traces of visual perceptual ability in blind areas
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| change blindness | the inability to detect changes in objects or scenes that are being viewed
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| cocktail party problem | the process of tracking one conversation in the face of the distraction of other conversations
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| conjunction search | looking for a particular combination (conjuction: joining together) of features
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| consciousness | includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of awareness
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| controlled processes | assessible to conscious control and even require it
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| dichotic presentation | presenting a different message to each ear
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| dishabituation | change in a familiar stimulus that promps us to start noticing the stimulus again
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| distracters | nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus
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| divided attention | the prudent allocation of available attentional resources to coordinate the performance of more than one task at a time
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| feature-integration theory | explains the relative ease of conducting feature searches and the relative difficulty of conducting conjunction searches
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| feature search | simply scanning the environment for a particular feature or features
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| habituation | involves our becomig accustomed to a stimulus so that we gradually pay less and less attention to it
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| multimode theory | proposes that attention is flexible; selection of one message over another message can be made at any of various different points in the course of information processing
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| priming | the facilitation of one's ability to utilize missing informatin; occurs when recognition of certain stimuli is affected by prior presentation of the same or similar stimuli
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| search | refers to a scan of the environment for particular features- actively looking for something when you are not sure where it will appear
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| selective attention | choosing to attend to some stimuli and to ignore others
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| sensory adaptation | a lessening of attention to a stimulus that is not subject to conscious control
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| signal | a target stimulus
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| signal detection | the detection of the appearance of a particular stimulus
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| signal-detection theory (SDT) | a theory of how we detect stimuli that involves four possible outcomes of the presence or absence of a stimulus and our detection or nondetection of a stimulus
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| Stroop effect | demonstrates the psychological difficulty in selectively attending to the color of the ink and trying to ignore the word that is printed with the ink of that color
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| tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon | experience of trying to remember something that is known to be stored in memory but that cannot readily be retrieved
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| vigilance | refers to a person's ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target stimulus of interest
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| Alzheimer's disease | a disease of older adults that causes dementia as wll as progressive memory loss
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| amnesia | severe loss of explicit memory
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| anterograde amnesia | the inability to remember event that occur after a traumatic event
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| central executive | both coordinates attentional activities and governs responses
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| episodic buffer | a limited-capacity system that is capable of binding information from the subsidiary systems and from long-term memory into a unitary episodic representation
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| episodic memory | stores personally experienced events or episodes
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| explicit memory | when participants engage in conscious recollection
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| hypermnesia | a process of producing retrieval of memories that seem to have been forgotten
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| hypothetical constructs | concepts that are not themselves directly measurable or observable but that serve as mental models for understanding how a psychological phenomenon works
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| iconic store | a discrete visual sensory register that holds information for very short periods
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| implicit memory | when we recollect something but are not consciously aware that we are trying to do so
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| infantile amnesia | the inability to recall events that happened when we were very young
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| levels-of-processing framework | postulates that memory does not comprise three or even any specific number of separate stores but rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth encoding
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| long-term store | very large capacity, capable of storing information for very long periods, perhaps even indefinitely
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| memory | the means by which we retain and draw o our past experiences to use this information in the present
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| mnemonist | someone who demonstrates extraordinarily keen memory ability, usually based on the use of special techniques for memory enhancement
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| phonological loop | briefly holds inner speech for verbal comprehension and for acoustic rehearsal
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| prime | a node that activates a connected node; this activation is known as the priming effect
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| priming effect | the resulting activation of the node
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| recall | to produce a fact, a word, or other item from memory
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| recognition | to select or otherwise identify an item as being one that you learned previously
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| retrograde amnesia | occurs when individuals lose their purposeful memory for events prior to whatever trauma induces memory loss
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| semantic memory | stores general world knowledge
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| sensory store | capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods
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| short-term store | capable of storing information for somewhat longer periods but also of relatively limited capacity
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| visuospatial sketchpad | briefly hols sme visual images
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| working memory | holds only the most recently activated portion of long-tem memory, and it moves these activated elements into and out of brief, temporary memory storage
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| accessibility | the degree to which we can gain access to the available information
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| autobiographical memory | refers to memory of an individual's history
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| availability | the presence of information stored in long-term memory
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| consolidation | the process of integrating new information into stored information
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| constructive | prior experience affects how we recall things and what we actally recall from memory
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| decay | occurs when simply the passage of time causes an individual to forget
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| decay theory | asserts that information is forgotten becuase of the gradual disappearance, rather than displacement of the memory trace
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| distributed practice | learning in which various sessions are spaced over time
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| encoding | refers to how you transform a physical, sensory input into a kind of representation that can be placed into memory
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| encoding specificity | what is recalled depends on what is encoded
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| flashbulb memory | a memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers the event as vividly as if it were indelibly preserved on film
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| interference | occurs when competing information causes an individual to forget something
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| interference theory | refers to the view that forgetting occurs because recall of certain words interferes with recall of other words
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| massed practice | learning in which sessions are crammed together in a very short space of time
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| metacognition | our understanding and control of our cognition; our ability to think about and control our own processes of thought and ways of enhancing our thinking
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| metamemory | strategies involve reflecting on our own memory processes with a view to improving our memory
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| mnemoic devices | specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words
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| primacy effect | refers to the superior recall of words at and near the beginning of a list
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| proactive interference | occurs when the interfering material occurs before, rather than after, learning of the to-be-remembered material
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| recency effect | refers to the superior recall of words at and near the end of a list
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| reconstructive | involving the use of various strategies (eg. searching for cues, drawing inferences) for retrieving the original memory traces of our experiences as a basis for retrieval
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| rehearsal | the repeated recitation of an item
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| retrieval (memory) | refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory
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| retroactive interference | caused by activity occurring after we learn something but before we are aked to recall that thing; also called retroactive inhibition
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| storage (memory) | refers to how you retain encoded information in memory
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| analogue codes | a form of knowledge representation that preserves the main perceptual features of whatever is being represented for the physical stimuli we observe in our environment
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| cognitive maps | internal representations of our physical environment, particularly centering on spatial relationships
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| declarative knowledge | knowledge of facts that can be stated
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| dual-code theory | belief suggesting that knowledge is represented both in images and in symbols
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| functional-equivalence hypothesis | belief that although visual imagery is not identical to visual perception, it is functionally equivalent to it
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| imagery | the mental representation of things that are not currently being sensed by the sense organs
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| knowledge representation | the form for what you know in your mind about things, ideas, events, and so on that exist outside your mind
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| mental models | knowledge structures that individuals construct to understand and explain their experiences;an internal representation of information that corresponds analogously with whatever is being represented
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| mental rotation | involves rotationally transforming an object's visual mental image
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| procedural knowledge | knowledge of procedures that can be implemented
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| propositional theory | belief suggesting that knowledge is represented only in underlying propositions, not in the form of images or of words and oher symbols
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| symbolic representation | meaning that the relationship between the words and what it represents is simply arbitrary
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| ACT | Adaptive Control of Thought. In his ACT model, Jon Anderson synthesized some of the features of serial infomation-processing models and some of the features of semantic-network models. represented as production systems. declarative= propositional networks
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| ACT-R | a model of info processing that integrates a network representation for declarative knowledge and a production-system representation for procedural knowledge
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| artifact categories | groupings that are designed or invented by humans to serve particular purposes or functions
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| basic level | degree of specificity of a concept that seems to be a level within a hierarchy that is preferred to other levels; sometimes termed natural level
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| category | a concept that functions to organize or point out aspects of equivalence among other concepts based on common features or similarlity to a prototype
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| characteristic features | qualities that describe (chacterize or typify) the prototype but are not necessary for it
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| concept | an idea about something that provides a means of understanding the world
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| connectionist models | according to connectionist models, we handle ver large numbers of cognitive operations at once through a network distributed across incalculable numbers of locations in the brain
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| converging operations | the use of multiple approaches and techniques to address a problem
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| core | refers to the defining features something must have to be considered an example of a category
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| defining feature | a necessary attribute
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| exemplars | typical representatives of a category
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| jargon | specialized vocabulary commonly used within a group, such as a profession or a trade
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| modular | divided into discrete modules that operate more or less independently of each other
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| natural categories | groupings that occur naturally in the world
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| networks | a web of relationships (eg. category membership, attribution) between nodes
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| nodes | the elements of a network
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| nominal kind | the arbitrary assignment of a label toan entity that meets a certain set of prespecified conditions
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| parallel distributed processing (PDP) models | aka connectionist models. the handling of very large numbers of cognitive operations at once through a network distributed across incalculable numbers of locations in the brain
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| parallel processing | occurs when multiple operations are executed all at once
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| production | the generation and output of a procedure
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| production system | an ordered set of productions in which execution starts at the top of a list of productions, continues until a condition is satisfied, and then returns to the top of the list to start anew
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| prototype theory | suggests that categories are formed on the basis of a (prototypical, or averaged) model of the category
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| schemas | mental frameworks for representing knowledge that encompass an array of interrelated concepts in a meaningful organization
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| script | a structure that describes appropriate sequences of events in a particular context
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| serial processing | means by which information is handled through a linear sequence of operations, one operation at a time
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| spreading activation | excitation that fans out along a set of nodes within a given network
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| theory-based view of meaning | holds that people understand and categorize concepts in terms of implicit theories, or general ideas they have regarding those concepts
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