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Cognitive Psych.
Cognitive Psychology Exam #2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| arousal | a degree of psychological excitation, responsitivity, and readiness for action, relative to a baseline |
| attention | the attentive cognitive processing of a limited amount of information from the vast amount of information available through the senses, in memory, and through cognitive processes, focus on a small subset of available stimuli |
| automatic processes | involves no conscious control |
| automatization | the process by which a procedure changes from being highly conscious to being relatively automatic; also termed proceduralization |
| binaural presentation | presenting the same two messages, or sometimes just one message, to both ears simulataneously |
| blindsight | traces of visual perceptual ability in blind areas |
| change blindness | the inability to detect changes in objects or scenes that are being viewed |
| cocktail party problem | the process of tracking one conversation in the face of the distraction of other conversations |
| conjunction search | looking for a particular combination (conjuction: joining together) of features |
| consciousness | includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of awareness |
| controlled processes | assessible to conscious control and even require it |
| dichotic presentation | presenting a different message to each ear |
| dishabituation | change in a familiar stimulus that promps us to start noticing the stimulus again |
| distracters | nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus |
| divided attention | the prudent allocation of available attentional resources to coordinate the performance of more than one task at a time |
| feature-integration theory | explains the relative ease of conducting feature searches and the relative difficulty of conducting conjunction searches |
| feature search | simply scanning the environment for a particular feature or features |
| habituation | involves our becomig accustomed to a stimulus so that we gradually pay less and less attention to it |
| multimode theory | proposes that attention is flexible; selection of one message over another message can be made at any of various different points in the course of information processing |
| priming | the facilitation of one's ability to utilize missing informatin; occurs when recognition of certain stimuli is affected by prior presentation of the same or similar stimuli |
| search | refers to a scan of the environment for particular features- actively looking for something when you are not sure where it will appear |
| selective attention | choosing to attend to some stimuli and to ignore others |
| sensory adaptation | a lessening of attention to a stimulus that is not subject to conscious control |
| signal | a target stimulus |
| signal detection | the detection of the appearance of a particular stimulus |
| signal-detection theory (SDT) | a theory of how we detect stimuli that involves four possible outcomes of the presence or absence of a stimulus and our detection or nondetection of a stimulus |
| Stroop effect | demonstrates the psychological difficulty in selectively attending to the color of the ink and trying to ignore the word that is printed with the ink of that color |
| tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon | experience of trying to remember something that is known to be stored in memory but that cannot readily be retrieved |
| vigilance | refers to a person's ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target stimulus of interest |
| Alzheimer's disease | a disease of older adults that causes dementia as wll as progressive memory loss |
| amnesia | severe loss of explicit memory |
| anterograde amnesia | the inability to remember event that occur after a traumatic event |
| central executive | both coordinates attentional activities and governs responses |
| episodic buffer | a limited-capacity system that is capable of binding information from the subsidiary systems and from long-term memory into a unitary episodic representation |
| episodic memory | stores personally experienced events or episodes |
| explicit memory | when participants engage in conscious recollection |
| hypermnesia | a process of producing retrieval of memories that seem to have been forgotten |
| hypothetical constructs | concepts that are not themselves directly measurable or observable but that serve as mental models for understanding how a psychological phenomenon works |
| iconic store | a discrete visual sensory register that holds information for very short periods |
| implicit memory | when we recollect something but are not consciously aware that we are trying to do so |
| infantile amnesia | the inability to recall events that happened when we were very young |
| levels-of-processing framework | postulates that memory does not comprise three or even any specific number of separate stores but rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth encoding |
| long-term store | very large capacity, capable of storing information for very long periods, perhaps even indefinitely |
| memory | the means by which we retain and draw o our past experiences to use this information in the present |
| mnemonist | someone who demonstrates extraordinarily keen memory ability, usually based on the use of special techniques for memory enhancement |
| phonological loop | briefly holds inner speech for verbal comprehension and for acoustic rehearsal |
| prime | a node that activates a connected node; this activation is known as the priming effect |
| priming effect | the resulting activation of the node |
| recall | to produce a fact, a word, or other item from memory |
| recognition | to select or otherwise identify an item as being one that you learned previously |
| retrograde amnesia | occurs when individuals lose their purposeful memory for events prior to whatever trauma induces memory loss |
| semantic memory | stores general world knowledge |
| sensory store | capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods |
| short-term store | capable of storing information for somewhat longer periods but also of relatively limited capacity |
| visuospatial sketchpad | briefly hols sme visual images |
| working memory | holds only the most recently activated portion of long-tem memory, and it moves these activated elements into and out of brief, temporary memory storage |
| accessibility | the degree to which we can gain access to the available information |
| autobiographical memory | refers to memory of an individual's history |
| availability | the presence of information stored in long-term memory |
| consolidation | the process of integrating new information into stored information |
| constructive | prior experience affects how we recall things and what we actally recall from memory |
| decay | occurs when simply the passage of time causes an individual to forget |
| decay theory | asserts that information is forgotten becuase of the gradual disappearance, rather than displacement of the memory trace |
| distributed practice | learning in which various sessions are spaced over time |
| encoding | refers to how you transform a physical, sensory input into a kind of representation that can be placed into memory |
| encoding specificity | what is recalled depends on what is encoded |
| flashbulb memory | a memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers the event as vividly as if it were indelibly preserved on film |
| interference | occurs when competing information causes an individual to forget something |
| interference theory | refers to the view that forgetting occurs because recall of certain words interferes with recall of other words |
| massed practice | learning in which sessions are crammed together in a very short space of time |
| metacognition | our understanding and control of our cognition; our ability to think about and control our own processes of thought and ways of enhancing our thinking |
| metamemory | strategies involve reflecting on our own memory processes with a view to improving our memory |
| mnemoic devices | specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words |
| primacy effect | refers to the superior recall of words at and near the beginning of a list |
| proactive interference | occurs when the interfering material occurs before, rather than after, learning of the to-be-remembered material |
| recency effect | refers to the superior recall of words at and near the end of a list |
| reconstructive | involving the use of various strategies (eg. searching for cues, drawing inferences) for retrieving the original memory traces of our experiences as a basis for retrieval |
| rehearsal | the repeated recitation of an item |
| retrieval (memory) | refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory |
| retroactive interference | caused by activity occurring after we learn something but before we are aked to recall that thing; also called retroactive inhibition |
| storage (memory) | refers to how you retain encoded information in memory |
| analogue codes | a form of knowledge representation that preserves the main perceptual features of whatever is being represented for the physical stimuli we observe in our environment |
| cognitive maps | internal representations of our physical environment, particularly centering on spatial relationships |
| declarative knowledge | knowledge of facts that can be stated |
| dual-code theory | belief suggesting that knowledge is represented both in images and in symbols |
| functional-equivalence hypothesis | belief that although visual imagery is not identical to visual perception, it is functionally equivalent to it |
| imagery | the mental representation of things that are not currently being sensed by the sense organs |
| knowledge representation | the form for what you know in your mind about things, ideas, events, and so on that exist outside your mind |
| mental models | knowledge structures that individuals construct to understand and explain their experiences;an internal representation of information that corresponds analogously with whatever is being represented |
| mental rotation | involves rotationally transforming an object's visual mental image |
| procedural knowledge | knowledge of procedures that can be implemented |
| propositional theory | belief suggesting that knowledge is represented only in underlying propositions, not in the form of images or of words and oher symbols |
| symbolic representation | meaning that the relationship between the words and what it represents is simply arbitrary |
| ACT | Adaptive Control of Thought. In his ACT model, Jon Anderson synthesized some of the features of serial infomation-processing models and some of the features of semantic-network models. represented as production systems. declarative= propositional networks |
| ACT-R | a model of info processing that integrates a network representation for declarative knowledge and a production-system representation for procedural knowledge |
| artifact categories | groupings that are designed or invented by humans to serve particular purposes or functions |
| basic level | degree of specificity of a concept that seems to be a level within a hierarchy that is preferred to other levels; sometimes termed natural level |
| category | a concept that functions to organize or point out aspects of equivalence among other concepts based on common features or similarlity to a prototype |
| characteristic features | qualities that describe (chacterize or typify) the prototype but are not necessary for it |
| concept | an idea about something that provides a means of understanding the world |
| connectionist models | according to connectionist models, we handle ver large numbers of cognitive operations at once through a network distributed across incalculable numbers of locations in the brain |
| converging operations | the use of multiple approaches and techniques to address a problem |
| core | refers to the defining features something must have to be considered an example of a category |
| defining feature | a necessary attribute |
| exemplars | typical representatives of a category |
| jargon | specialized vocabulary commonly used within a group, such as a profession or a trade |
| modular | divided into discrete modules that operate more or less independently of each other |
| natural categories | groupings that occur naturally in the world |
| networks | a web of relationships (eg. category membership, attribution) between nodes |
| nodes | the elements of a network |
| nominal kind | the arbitrary assignment of a label toan entity that meets a certain set of prespecified conditions |
| parallel distributed processing (PDP) models | aka connectionist models. the handling of very large numbers of cognitive operations at once through a network distributed across incalculable numbers of locations in the brain |
| parallel processing | occurs when multiple operations are executed all at once |
| production | the generation and output of a procedure |
| production system | an ordered set of productions in which execution starts at the top of a list of productions, continues until a condition is satisfied, and then returns to the top of the list to start anew |
| prototype theory | suggests that categories are formed on the basis of a (prototypical, or averaged) model of the category |
| schemas | mental frameworks for representing knowledge that encompass an array of interrelated concepts in a meaningful organization |
| script | a structure that describes appropriate sequences of events in a particular context |
| serial processing | means by which information is handled through a linear sequence of operations, one operation at a time |
| spreading activation | excitation that fans out along a set of nodes within a given network |
| theory-based view of meaning | holds that people understand and categorize concepts in terms of implicit theories, or general ideas they have regarding those concepts |
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