Biomechanics 176
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
each of the black spaces below before clicking
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| weight | m*g
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| Shear stress (Andrea) | Force applied parallel to area undergoing stress
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| Tensile Stress (Andrea) | Object is being pulled
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| Yield Stress (Andrea) | The point in which hooke's law is no longer obeyed
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| Stress (Andrea) | Force/Area
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| Speed (Andrea) | Distance/Time
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| Velocity (Andrea) | Speed with direction
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| Acceleration (Andrea) | Velocity/Time
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| Momentum (p) (Andrea) | mass(m)/Velocity (v)
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| Force (F) (Andrea) | mass(m)*acceleration (a)
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| Work (w) (Andrea) | force(F) * displacement (s)
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| Power (Andrea) | Force (F) * velocity (v)
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| Blood Flow (Q) (Andrea) | Change in Pressure (^P)/Resistance (R)
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| Cross Sectional Area (CSA) (Andrea) | (muscle mass * Cos theta )/ (Fiber Lenght *muscle density)
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| Blood Velocity (Andrea) | Q/A
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| Cardiac output (Andrea) | Stroke volume (SV) * Heart Rate (HR)
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| Young's Modulus (Andrea) | stress/strain
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| Isometric Contraction | maintains same muscle length during a contraction
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| Concentric Contraction | shortening of muscle during a contraction
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| Eccentric Contraction | lengthening/elongation of muscle during a contraction
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| Pressure Drag | def: force required to move fluid around object/animal Dominates When: - high speed - large size - low viscosity
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| Friction Drag | def: force due to interactions between the fluid and surface of object/animal Dominates When: - low speed - small size - high viscosity
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| Drag (D) | (1/2)*Drag Coefficient(Cd)*density*surface area(SA)*velocity(v)^2
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| Poiseuille's Equation | Volumetric flow(Q)= [change in pressure(deltaP)*pi*radius(r)^4]/[8*length(L)*viscosity)
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| Vasoconstriction | - decrease radius - less flow - increase resistance
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| Vasodilation | - increase radius - more flow - decrease resistance
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| Lift (L) | (1/2)*Lift Coefficient(Cl)*density*surface area(SA)*velocity(v)^2
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| Clingfish | Attaches rough surfaces by: - microscopic hairs - mucus layers - soft rim
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| stance | foot in contact
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| swing | foot in air
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| Measuring Joint & Muscle Moments | muscle moment arm(r)*Muscle force(Fm)=Joint moment arm(R)*Ground Reaction Force(G)
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| Limb Effective Mechanical Advantage (EMA) | Ground Reaction Force (G)/Muscle Force (Fm) ; higher EMA=lower effort, lower EMA= higher effort
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| viscoelastic | resists shear flow and strain linearly with time when a stress is applied; strains when stretched and quickly return to their original state once the stress is removed; therefore exhibits time-dependent strain.
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| Reynolds Number | critical for describing fluid flow; Fi/Fv = inertial forces/viscous forces; high RE, high turbulence, low RE, laminar flow
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| principle of continuity | P1V1=P2V2
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| Frank-starling law of the heart | increase in end-diastolic volume results in a more forceful contraction
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| Flight and swim rotation | pitch = up-and-down "nod" movement; roll = rotation sideways; yaw = sideway movement
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| Parts of a fish | paired fins: pectoral and pelvic fins; median fins: dorsal, caudal, anal fins
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| Forces on a fish | buoyant, thrust, weight, drag
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| Thrust force | change in momentum of vortex/change in time
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| High aspect ratio | longer body, less surface area
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| Low aspect ratio | shorter body, more surface area
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| BCF (Body/Caudal Fin) | periodic propulsion; cyclically repeating kinematics; lower power, sustainable
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| BCF Transient | brief non-repeating kinematics, high power
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| MPF (Median Paired Fins) | brief or long term variable kinematics, high speed low acceleration, feeding motion
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| Barnacle cement | 90% protein, coagulates and polymerizes like blood cots in humans
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| echinoderms | starfish; stick with a 3 part adhesion. two parts are adhesive cells, one part is for detachment
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| walk | inverted pendulum, energy exchange between KE and PE
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| run | exchange between PE and KE, with work and stored energy
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| Stress scale to mass | Stress = F/A = [m^(3/3)]/[m^(2/3)] = m^(1/3)
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| Ground Reaction Force (GRF) | force exerted by the ground back on you; your "weight"
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| 3 ways to contract isometrically (Allen Le) | tendon-muscle, biarticular, muscle-muscle
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| in situ(Allen Le) | in place, animal isn't moving
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| in vivo(Allen Le) | in place, animal is moving
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| in vitro(Allen Le) | out of body
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| sonomicrometry(Allen Le) | measuring muscle length change in vivo
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| newtonian fluid (Allen Le) | single value of viscosity, linear relationship b/w applied shear stress and resulting rate of deformation
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| adhesion(Allen Le) | physical attraction or joining of 2 surfaces
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| two approaches to measure spring mechanism(Allen Le) | 1) measure directly (tendon buckles, EMG, sonomicrometry), 2) external analysis (GRF and Kinematics)
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| vector(Allen Le) | magnitude and direction
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| newton's 3 laws(Allen Le) | 1) body stays rest or stays in motion unless force is applied to it 2)F=MA 3)equal and opposite forces
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| how does length scale with mass(Allen Le) | L=M^1/3
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| how does area scale with mass(Allen Le) | A=M^2/3
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| Efficiency(Allen Le) | W in / W out x 100
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| perfectly elastic(Allen Le) | returns to original shape no energy lost
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| perfectly plastic(Allen Le) | doesn't return to original shape, all energy lost
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| viscoelastic(Allen Le) | returns to original shape after some delay, some energy lost
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| Permanent Adhesion(Allen Le) | involves cement
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| Temporary attachment(Allen Le) | allowing animal to attach strongly but detach quickly when it needs
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| Transitory(Allen Le) | Simultaneous attachment and locomotion
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| Clingfish(Allen Le) | microscopic hairs, suction, form a soft rim on surface, and secrete mucus to bind to rough surfaces
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| Gecko Adhesion(Allen Le) | millions of microscopic hairs - use van Der waal's forces. Attaches to smooth surfaces
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| Turbulence | destroys streamlines, high rates of sheer, viscous dissipation of energy
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| Vortex | a packet of spinning fluid, cannot end in open space
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| Gliding | using potential energy to offset drag; animal descends relative to air
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| Soaring | gliding in upwardly moving air. Three kinds: slope soaring, circles to stay in thermal, dynamic soaring
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| Tip vortex | lost energy
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| Angle of attack | angle between airfoil and airfoil axis. If more than 15 degrees, there will be no lift
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| Thrust | the forward component of F_aero
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| Aspect ratio | length^2/surface area
length/cord
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| Wing loading | mass/surface area (of wing)
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| Types of organismal attachment/adhesion | 1- Permanent: involves cement
2- Temporary: allows animals to attach strongly but detach quickly
3- Transitory
3- Transitory: simultaneous attachment and locomotion
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| Geckos (adhesion) | microscopic hair made from keratin, van der waals interactions
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| Muscle moment | r x F_m (muscle moment arm x muscle force)
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| Joint moment | R x G (joint moment arm x ground reaction force)
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| Tipping point | Size of Base of Support (BoS)/ height of Center of Mass (CoM)
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| Autotomy | self-amputation of appendages; muscular contractions break vertebrae at autotomy plane
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| Which Fins prevent Rolling in Fish | Median Fins
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| Which fins prevent Pitching | Paired Fins
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| Which Fins prevents Yawning | All fins (Median and paired)`
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| Digital practical image Velocimetry | A device that utilizes a strong beam of laser and silver particles to reflect the formation of vortex in relation to fin movement to understand the biomechanics of swimming.
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| Thrust force | Momentum of vortex/ Time it took to form the vortex
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| Momentum of vortex | water density (rho) *Circulation vortex * A (Surface area of the vortex)(pi*r^2)
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| Circulation of vortex | Avg. Tangential velocity * Circumference (2*pi*r)
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| Aspect ratio | (leading edge)^2/ Area
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| High aspect ratio fin | Long fin and smaller surface area
minimal drag
long distance swimming because they have longer drag
High efficiency
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| Low aspect ratio fin | Short and larger area
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| C-start Mechanism | Mauther cell, 1) pairs of neurons run down each side of the body
2) discharge muscle contraction
3) one side is inhibited
4) C-shape Formed
5) Used in escaping
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| S-strart Mechanism | -prey capture
-slower than C-start
-More accurate than C-start
-simultaneous muscle contraction
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| Static Stability | A vertical line passing through Center of Mass (CoM) will fall within base of support (BoS)
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| Hydrostatic stability in Fish | Fish are always hydrostatically stable becaus ethe use fin muscle to prevent rolling upside down.
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| Dynamic Stability | Active property that always relies on feedback to bring back the animal to normal movement after perturbation.
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| Joint Flexor Moment | When the angle of the joint is below 180 degrees on the side facing the Ground Reaction Force
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| Permanent Organismal Attachment | Involves cement
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| Temporary Organismal Attachment | Allowing animal to attach strongly, but detach quickly
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| Transitory Organismal Attachment | Simultaneous attachment + locomotion
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| Static Stability | Passive property; forces acting on body are at equilibrium.
Based on the location of the center of mass relative to base of support.
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| Tipping Point | Size of base of support/center of mass
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| Dynamic Stability | Active property; relies on constant feedback, sometimes feet forward control
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| Robustness | Max perturbation that an animal can handle
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| Tail Stability | Can be used for climbing, mid-air righting, and jumping
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| Centripetal Force | mv^2/r
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| Muscle Moment | r*Fm
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| Joint Moment | R*G
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| Joint Extensor Moment | When the angle of the joint is above 180 degrees on the side facing the Ground Reaction Force
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| Compressive Stress | Force is perpendicular to the area acted upon, and acts to 'squeeze' the surface
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| Flexural Stress | Force acts to 'bend' the material, and combines shear, tensile and compressive stresses
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| Torsional Stress | Force acts to 'twist' the material. Multiple stresses involved
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| Pressure | Force over area, acts omnidirectional
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| Potential Energy | Energy due to an object's position in space. (mass) x (acceleration due to gravity) x (height)
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| Kinetic Energy | Energy due to an object's velocity. (mass) x (velocity)^2 x (1/2)
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| Conservation of Energy | Total energy in a system is constant. This does not preclude the energy from changing forms (eg. potential energy can become kinetic energy)
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| Conservation of Momentum | Momentum is constant for an object. (mass) x (velocity)
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| Higher Effective Mechanical Advantage | lower effort
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| Lower Effective Mechanical Advantage | higher effort
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| Change in Elastic Storage | Change in Kinetic energy + Change in Potential energy
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| Circulation | vortex stuck to a wing
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| Conservation of Angular Momentum | Angular momentum is constant for an object. (mass) x (angular velocity) x (radius)^2
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| Camber | The shape of a wing. Crucial to determining lift
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| Scaling | Determining how two variables relate to one another. For example, recognizing volume is approximately (length)^3
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| Center of Mass (CoM) | A point which we can model as the center of the distribution of mass. As long as the CoM is above the BoS, the object/organism is statically stable
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| Base of Support (BoS) | Area defined by supportive struts of object or organism. As long as the CoM is above the BoS, the object/organism is statically stable
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| Perturbation | A force that threatens the stability of the object or organism at hand. For example, a gust of wind on a tree, or a person trying to tip a cow because, well, people do that sort of thing, apparently.
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| Upright animal | Has low muscle and decreased static stability.
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| Turning | The force required to turnaround a curve with a radius r.
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| Locomotion | the ability to move from one place to another; movement
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| Mauthner Cell | A pair of neurons that runs down each side of the body and are responsible for very fast escape reflexes.
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| Streamline | Line of fluid where the local flow of velocity is tangent.
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| Resilience | Elasticity of an object; the ability of an object to spring back into shape.
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| Plasticity | The quality of being easily shaped.
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| Stiffness | The quality of being strong.
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| Toughness | The ability to withstand rough handling and adverse conditions.
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| Viscosity | The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency because of internal forces.
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| Viscous Forces | The force between a body and a fluid that moves past it in a direction opposite of the flow of the fluid that passes the object.
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| Inertia | The property of matter that keeps it at constant rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an outside force.
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| Inertial force | The force that resists a change in the velocity of an object.
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| Motor Unit | One motor neuron and all the fibers it innervates.
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| Muscle Spindle | Sensory receptors in the muscle that senses the changes in muscle length.
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| upright animal | low muscle force due to high EMA BUT decreased static stability
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| crouched animal | high muscle force due to low EMA BUT increased static stability
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| Shear Modulus | Shear Stress/Shear Strain
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| Strain | Delta Length/Initial Length
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| Conservation of Mass | a principle stating that mass cannot be created or destroyed.
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| Allometry | study of the relationship of body size to shape, anatomy, physiology
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| Allometric growth | The regular and systematic pattern of growth such that the mass or size of any organ or part of a body can be expressed in relation to the total mass or size of the entire organism
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| external pertubation | can be external / internal
- environment: obstacle, height, friction
- external: carry offspring / prey
- feeding
- partintion autonomy
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| Hooke's Law | force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance X is proportional to that distance.
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| primary forces of flight | lift, weight, drag, thrust
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| adaptation of flight | reduce mass, fuse bones, feathers, wings
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| evolution of flight | birds, bats, insects, pterosaurs
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| stride | stance + swing
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| Where is potential energy highest when walking | Midstance
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| Where is kinetic energy lowest when walking | Midstance
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| Van der waals attractive force (VP) | weak attractive force. frictional force and contact electrification. has direction
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| Types of Attachments | 1. Friction
2. Hooks
3. Locks and snaps
4. Clamps
5. Suction
6. Adhesive Secretions
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| oscillation | repetitive movement, such as an up and down stroke while a fish is swimming
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| undulation | wavelike motion such as stingrays
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| Types of vortices from a bird (VP) | Bound vortex, tip vortex, and starting vortex
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| Forces resisted in adhesion | Drag, Gravity
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| What is turbulent flow associated with? | High drag
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| Breder 1926 | defined mode of swimming based on genus name & patterns of motion
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| Thrust Force | density x circulation of vortex x SA of circle
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| Systole (VP) | contraction
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| Diastole (VP) | relaxation
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| Lift is perpendicular to? | Air flow
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| Drag is parallel to | Fluid flow
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| High AR for fins | minimual drag, good for long distance swimming. shape decreases viscous drag by low SA = efficent
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| Low AR for fins | create drag, good for stop, turn, and burst of speed = inefficent. shape increases viscous drag by increasing SA
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| Wingbeat (VP) | downstroke and upstroke(recovery phase)
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| Trade off | a balance achieved between two desirable but incompatible features; a compromise
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| 3 types of vortex on a wing | 1. Tip vortex
2. Bound vortex
3. Starting vortex
- vortex can't end in open space, must circle on self or to a solid structure
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| Rheotaxis (VP) | fish turning to face an incoming current
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| Dorsal fins prevent | Rolling
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| Dorsal fin | an unpaired fin on the back of a fish
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| Why do birds fly in formation? | the wings provide lift with the tip vortex and saves 20% energy for the neighboring birds from their tip vortex
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| Caudal fin | Tail fin
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| Pectoral fin | each of a pair of fins situated on either side just behind a fish's head, helping to control the direction of movement during locomotion
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| Which fins help prevent yawing | All fins
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| Pectoral fins are used for | Pitching
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| How do we visualize vortices | Digital Particle Image Velocimetry
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| Flapping fins | Up + down
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| Rowing fins | Fins row back and forth, drag based thrust
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| How is lift created? | The airfoil on the top has a longer path and has a higher velocity, so the pressure is lower. Below the airfoil has a lower velocity so the pressure is higher. Pressure goes from high to low so lift is created with a circulation that goes down to up.
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| Name an advantage Cling fish have over Geckos | -Due to their soft rim they can attach to rough surfaces. Geckos rely on contact of hair so they require a smooth surface. dustin
-the release of mucus allows Cling fish to attach to wet surfaces
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| What is the difference in a force versus times graph for running and walking? | Running has a higher peak force and ends earlier while walking has a lower peak force. dustin
-the area between the two graphs are the same.
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| As body size increases = GRF (increases/decreases)? | increases dustin
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| Explain the trade off between high and low aspect ratio | High would create minimal drag due to reduce in surface area -> long distance flying
Low would create drag because of increase in surface are -> Manuevarability dustin
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| What is the drawbacks of C-start | always accelerate in another direction dustin
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| Explain the trade off between EMA and stability | High EMA = low muscle force and low static stability ->upright
Low EMA = High muscle force and High static stability -> crouched dustin
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| External flexor moment | r/R=G/Fm
R is changing --> Fm will change to counteract it. dustin
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| Explain the wing loading trade off | High wing loading -> small wings to fly
dustin
Low wing loading --> fly constantly and slowly
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| Whats the difference between C-start and s-start | c-start is a unilateral muscle contraction while s-start contracts multiple parts of the body. dustin
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| Difference between BCF periodic and BCF transient | BCF periodic is repeating and small acceleration
BCF transitory is non repeating and high acceleration. dustin
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| what is the primary mechanism that allows geckos adhesion | Van der Wals Interaction density of hair is 1 million/mm^2 dustin
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| Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for energy conservation. (Peter P.) | Body => Tendon => Body
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| Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for power production. (Peter P.) | Muscle => Tendon => Body
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| Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for energy absorption. (Peter P.) | Body => Tendon => Muscle
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| Parallel muscle (Peter P.) | Fibers or fascicles run the length of the muscle body.
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| Pinnate muscle (Peter P.) | Fibers or fascicles are angled relative to the long axis of the muscle belly.
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| Irrotational vortex (Peter P.) | One in which the different layers of fluid are rotating at different velocities.
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| Size principle of motor unit recruitment (Peter P.) | As demand increases on the neuromuscular system, more motor units will be recruited. As the recruitment increases, additional (and larger) motor units will be added and force will rise exponentially.
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| Peak Power (Peter P.) | 30% of Vmax
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| Positive Allometry (Peter P.) | When something scales with size at a faster rate than is expected by isometry.
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| Muscle Fiber (Type 1) (Peter P.) | Slow, oxidative. Allows you to perform slow behaviors that require endurance, but not a lot of force.
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| Muscle Fiber (Type 2A) (Peter P.) | Fast, oxidative-glycolytic. Allows you to perform fast behaviors with some resistance to fatigue.
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| Muscle Fiber (Type 2B) (Peter P.) | Fast, glycolytic. Allows you to perform fast behaviors that require a lot of force and quick response, due to its high innervation ratio.
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| Questions that can be answered using motion analysis. (Peter P.) | 1. Descriptions of behavior.
2. How particular performance measures are achieved?
3. How do organisms respond to different treatments?
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| First class lever (Peter P.) | Fulcrum placed between the effort and load.
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| Second class lever (Peter P.) | Load in-between the effort and the fulcrum.
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| Third class lever (Peter P.) | Effort between the load and the fulcrum.
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| What are the two ends of the continuum for modes of swimming? | Undulation to Oscillation
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| Webb 1984 | Proposed BCF periodic, BCF transient, MPF, and Ocassional modes of swimming.
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| What does stride length x stride frequency =? | speed
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| How does CSA scale to Mass? | CSA = Mass^(2/3)
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| What is the major antagonistic force in aquatic locomotion? | Drag
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| What are the 3 factors involved in contractile force of muscles? | size of MU, # of MU involved, thicknes off muscle cells.
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| What does "all-or-nothing" refer to when discussing Motor Units? | All fibers innervated by the neuron of the motor unit will all contract when an action potential and will not contract when an action potential is not fired.
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| What is motor unit recruitment? | process of increasing and conferring activation of motor units to produce more force.
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| Blood Velocity | Flow/CSA of blood vessels
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| What happens to a vortex when its radius increases? | velocity decreases
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| What is the midpoint during a walk | the highest point reached
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| what is the midpoint during a run | the lowest point reached
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| What is stride length? | Distance
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| What kind of ______ joint moment must have occured for an extensor muscle moment to balance it? | flexor
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| What kind of ______ muscle moment must have occured for an extensor joint moment to balance it? | flexor
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| Steps of Feeding (VP) | 1.) locate prey and move to prey. 2.) Capture/subdue prey. 3.) process/ingest prey
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| Sensory systems (VP) | Vision, smell, sound, mechanical, temperature
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| Performance (VP) | Ability to perform ecologically relevant task
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| Jaw Protrusion (VP) | Move flow closer to prey
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| Hyoid depression and cranial elevation (VP) | Expands mouth cavity
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| Diversity of feeding (VP) | Prey type and medium of the habitat
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| Epaxial muscle (VP) | Cranial elevation
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| Sternohyoid (VP) | Hyoid retraction
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| Hypaxial muscle (VP) | Cleithrum retraction
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| Ways animal feed | filter feeding, suction feeding dustin
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| suction feeding mode | H2O to entrain the pray
small mouth
rapid prey velocity
small non evasive prey dustin
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| Ram feeding mode | predatro over take the prey
large mouth
rapid predator velocity
pursue evasive prey.
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| Explain mechanism for tongue projection | tongue is attached to front of the mouth.
muscle contracts -> pulls base of the tongue down
inertia extends soft mass of tongue when tongue flips out of mouth. dustin
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| Hysterisis | percent energy lost, can be found by calculating the area between the curves
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| Resilin | facilitates flexibility in wings, 50% water, 90% efficiency
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| Resilience Modulus |
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| J-shaped curve | compliant to a point then just stiff, examples include arteries of human circulatory system and neck muscle of deer
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| keratin | beta-keratin stronger than alpha-keratin, structural protein found in integument of vertebrates
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| fascicles | bundle of muscle fibers
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| sacromere | made up of thick myosin filament and thin actin filament
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| myosin | thick filament, motor protien, structure: head=ATPase, tail=binding, neck=regulates ATPase
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| actin | thin filament
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| why is ATP important in muscle contraction? | required for detachment of myosin from actin
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| why is Calcium important in muscle contraction? | required for attachment of myosin to actin
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| Sliding Filament Model (SFM) | similar to pulling a rope, alternating cycle of grasping and releasing the rope with actin=rope and myosin=hand
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| what is the trade-off for super fat muscle? | low force and high velocity
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| What are some differences between suction and ram fish? | Suction fish-small mouth, rapid prey velocity, small and non-evasive prey
Ram fish-large mouth, rapid predator velocity, evasive prey
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| Which muscles are used for jaw profusion in fish? | epaxial muscle, sternohyoid, and hypaxial muscle
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|
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| Equation used for mammalian chewing | out moment (FoLo) = muscle moment (LiFi)
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| Fatigue | 1. Everyone experiences fatigue
2. Fatigue ability increases with age
3. Critical for survival
4. Important for many clinical conditions.
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| Muscle Fatigue | a reduction in maximum muscle force due to exercise
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| Two factors in fatigue | central and peripheral
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| Factors in central fatigue | adenosine, cognitive aspect, mental tiredness, inhibition of motoneurons due to muscle input, discharge frequency of spinal motor neurons
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| Factors in peripheral fatigue | lactic acid, glycogen depletion, sarcomere damage, acetylcholine depletion, increase extracellular K+, increase inorganic phosphate from breakdown of creatine phosphate
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| adenosine | reduces arousal and inhibits excitatory neurotransmitters in brain
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| lactic acid | performance enhancer that increases force
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|
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| Late 1800s study in relation to exercise | In a matter of 2 weeks
1. strength training in one arm --> trained arm 70% increased force, arm not trained 40% increase force
2. control --> no change in strength
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| 1992 study in relation to exercise | Showed how important CNS is
1. control --> no change in strength
2. subjects exercised --> 30% increased force
3. subjects imagined they exercised --> 22% increased force
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| Human Training | individuals respond differently, could be related to ACE gene
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|
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| Mosso's Findings (1891) | first to state that individuals vary with fatigue, even though test subjects all did same task and age still different results
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| 4 Basic Aerodynamic Forces | Thrust, Lift, Drag, Weight
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|
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| External joint moments on graph | Moment (N*m) on y-axis
Time (s) on x-axis
+ <180 = flexor joint moment, extensor muscle moment
- > 180 = extensor joint moment, flexor muscle
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|
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| Fatigue ability | defined as time it takes for muscle to fatigue
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|
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| for walking when is PE highest? | midstance
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|
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| what blocks adenosine receptors? | caffeine
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|
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| dorsal | back
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|
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| ventral | stomach side
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|
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| anterior | towards head
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| posterior/caudal | towards bottom
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| proximal | near center
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| lateral | towards side
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| what makes a good morphological description? | you can draw a basic map of the features based on the description
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| homology | shared characteristics due to a common ancestor
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| morphospace | graph describing morphologies where each axis represents a character or even a combination of characters
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| disparity | measure of how variable a group is
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| medial | midline
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| distal | far from center
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| constraints | restriction, limitation or bias in the course of evolution
3 major types: phylogenetic, developmental, functional
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|
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| Morphology | The study and description of form
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|
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| What features make up a good morphological description? | -anatomical terms of location
-features that are close to the point of interest
-points of reference to describe a feature
-concise and consistent
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|
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| Theoretical morphology | Defining what are the possible forms by using mathematical and geometric rules
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|
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| In morphospace what do the points closer in space represent? | Represents forms that look very similar to each other
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|
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| In morphospace, what do the points farther in space represent? | Represents forms that look very different from each other
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|
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| Phylogenetic constraint | constraint based on the trajectory the group has historically taken
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|
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| Developmental Constraint | The developmental pathway is constrained in a particular way
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|
||||
| Functional Constraint | The form may not be physically possible or not suited to an animal’s needs
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|
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| What are the types of relationships that morphology can have with performance? | one to one mapping
one to many mapping
many to one mapping
many to many mapping
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|
||||
| One to one mapping | one morphological trait can be related to one functional trait
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|
||||
| One to many mapping | One morphological trait is related to many functional traits
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|
||||
| Many to one mapping | Many forms can perform the same function
(when one function is made up of 3 or more parts)
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|
||||
| Many to many mapping | Multiple forms affect multiple functions
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|
||||
| Redundancy | the more parts, the more potential there is for this relationship
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|
||||
| What is MicroCT and list 3 different modeling techniques | MicroCT helps with capturing 3D complex shapes
Techniques:
computational fluid dynamics
X-Romm and animation
Finite Element Analysis
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|
||||
| Duty factor - walking | Each leg contacts the ground for more than half the total stride time - duty factor > 50%
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|
||||
| Adjust speed in gaits | By changing stride length but not usually stride frequency.
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|
||||
| Power related to two gaits | Going slower, walking is cheaper; going faster,
running is cheaper.
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|
||||
| Compressive stress rule | All animals hit about the same peak compressive stress in their leg
bones.
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|
||||
| weakening of coral reefs | increased wave forces and lowering of pH
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|
||||
| components of reproductive isolation | Hybrid inviability and Migrant inferiority, both informing Biomechanics
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|
||||
| phenotypic plasticity | non-genetic differences in phenotypes
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|
||||
| Bone compressive strength | about 200 megapascals
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|
||||
| Load carrying - humans | that the cost of carrying a load by a human male differs in no significant way from the cost
of self-transport.
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|
||||
| GT speed | speed at which fish go from pectoral to caudal fins
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|
||||
| Lauder paper purpose | How to measure thrust in fluid
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|
||||
| linking biomechanics and speciation | stablishing the genetic basis of biomechanical traits, testing whether similar and divergent selection lead to biomechanical divergence, testing whether/howbiomechanical traits affect RI
🗑
|
||||
| Muscle CSA scale body mass | overall muscle cross section will scale with body mass to the power 0.67—indistinguishable from 0.68.
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|
||||
| Transport cost scale body mass | the minimum metabolic cost of transport scales with body mass to the power –0.32
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|
||||
| Galloping | An asymmetrical gait - the paired legs - the two front legs operate almost simultaneously, as
do the two hind legs -
don’t synchronize exactly, with one
always striking just before the other.
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|
||||
| Prey Type (Hoon) | Evasive vs sessile
Hard vs soft
Large vs small
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|
||||
| Sensory Sytems (Hoon) | Characteristics to locate prey and move to it
Vision, Smell, Sound, Mechanical, Temperature
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|
||||
| Frog Tongue Projection (Hoon) | Tongue is attached to front of mouth. Muscle contracts and pull bottom of the tongue down which causes tip of tongue to flip out of mouth
🗑
|
||||
| Walking Stride (Hoon) | KE and PE energy exchanged during locomotion (Out of phase)
🗑
|
||||
| Running Stride (Hoon) | KE and PE not equally exchanged.
Delta U = Delta KE + Delta PE
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|
||||
| Isometric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Same length during a contraction
Ex. Holding a book
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|
||||
| Concentric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Muscle shortening when generating force
Ex. Lifting an object
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|
||||
| Eccentric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Muscle lengthening when generating force
Ex. Slowly lowering an object
🗑
|
||||
| Jumping bush babies movement (Hoon) | Fast motor units recruited without slow muscles
🗑
|
||||
| Fish escape response (Hoon) | Fish can recruit white muscles only to maximize short term escape speed
🗑
|
||||
| Muscle Spindles (Hoon) | Sensory receptors within muscle to detect changes in length. Prevent overstretch
🗑
|
||||
| Golgi Tendon Organ (Hoon) | Senses changes in muscle force to prevent muscle damag
🗑
|
||||
| Positive work loop (Hoon) | Shortening of muscle on a Force x Length Curve (Concentric contraction)
🗑
|
||||
| Negative Work loop (Hoon) | Lengthening of muscle on a Force x Length Curve (Eccentric Contraction)
🗑
|
||||
| Pennation Angle (Hoon) | A pennate or pinnate muscle (also called a penniform muscle) is a muscle with fascicles that attach obliquely (in a slanting position) to its tendon. These types of muscles generally allow higher force production but smaller range of motion When a muscle
🗑
|
||||
| Anteromedial (Julia) | anterior + medial
🗑
|
||||
| Theoretical morphology (Julia) | What things could look like in comparison to what things actually look like
🗑
|
||||
| Theoretical morphospace (Julia) | Not constructed by measuring already existing forms; Uses simulation and therefore creates a map of all existing forms adhering to designated rules.
🗑
|
||||
| 3 Major Types of Constraints (Julia) | 1. Phylogenetic Constraint
2. Development Constraint
3. Functional Constraint
🗑
|
||||
| One to One Mapping (Julia) | Assumes one morphological trait related to one function; measure what is thought to be a biomechanically relevant trait; often use these results to predict of a untested animal
🗑
|
||||
| One to Many Mapping: Facilitation (Julia) | Tells us that the demands of related different functions may be similar in some way; e.g. Leg length, jump height, & sprint speed
🗑
|
||||
| One to Many Mapping: Trade-Off (Julia) | May tell us that relating functions are competing in some way; e.g. pennation angle, contraction force, and contraction speed
🗑
|
||||
| Many to One Mapping (Julia) | a potential mechanism of weakening trade-offs; i.e. If one part of the function fails, other parts can make up for it
🗑
|
||||
| Four bar linkages in fish (Julia) | Depending on the shape of the four bar linkage, opening the jaw will cause the upper jaw to rotate to different degrees
🗑
|
||||
| Geometric morphometrics (Julia) | Method of quantifying shape by placing landmarks on homologous structures across many specimens; Gives us methods for better information than linear measurements; Creates morphospaces where the axes are combinations of variables
🗑
|
||||
| X-Romm (Julia) | X-ray video taken through time and can be either 2D or 3D; fluorescent markers are used to track points in the skeleton to see how specifically the bones move; the video can be enhanced by designating the same points to a microCT model to align the bones
🗑
|
||||
| Finite element analysis (Julia) | method for prediction how model reacts to real world forces: break down 3D models into manageable "bricks" - tiny parts; apply physics equations based on their material properties that are told to the computer
🗑
|
||||
| Turbulence (Julia) | the random motion of fluid in space and time
🗑
|
||||
| Gliding (Julia) | always descending, losing air speed
🗑
|
||||
| Wing beat in flapping flight (true flight) (Julia) | down stroke (flapping down) = high force, up stroke (recovery) = low force; the forward component of the two actions creates thrust
🗑
|
Review the information in the table. When you are ready to quiz yourself you can hide individual columns or the entire table. Then you can click on the empty cells to reveal the answer. Try to recall what will be displayed before clicking the empty cell.
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You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
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