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Biomechanics 176
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| weight | m*g |
| Shear stress (Andrea) | Force applied parallel to area undergoing stress |
| Tensile Stress (Andrea) | Object is being pulled |
| Yield Stress (Andrea) | The point in which hooke's law is no longer obeyed |
| Stress (Andrea) | Force/Area |
| Speed (Andrea) | Distance/Time |
| Velocity (Andrea) | Speed with direction |
| Acceleration (Andrea) | Velocity/Time |
| Momentum (p) (Andrea) | mass(m)/Velocity (v) |
| Force (F) (Andrea) | mass(m)*acceleration (a) |
| Work (w) (Andrea) | force(F) * displacement (s) |
| Power (Andrea) | Force (F) * velocity (v) |
| Blood Flow (Q) (Andrea) | Change in Pressure (^P)/Resistance (R) |
| Cross Sectional Area (CSA) (Andrea) | (muscle mass * Cos theta )/ (Fiber Lenght *muscle density) |
| Blood Velocity (Andrea) | Q/A |
| Cardiac output (Andrea) | Stroke volume (SV) * Heart Rate (HR) |
| Young's Modulus (Andrea) | stress/strain |
| Isometric Contraction | maintains same muscle length during a contraction |
| Concentric Contraction | shortening of muscle during a contraction |
| Eccentric Contraction | lengthening/elongation of muscle during a contraction |
| Pressure Drag | def: force required to move fluid around object/animal Dominates When: - high speed - large size - low viscosity |
| Friction Drag | def: force due to interactions between the fluid and surface of object/animal Dominates When: - low speed - small size - high viscosity |
| Drag (D) | (1/2)*Drag Coefficient(Cd)*density*surface area(SA)*velocity(v)^2 |
| Poiseuille's Equation | Volumetric flow(Q)= [change in pressure(deltaP)*pi*radius(r)^4]/[8*length(L)*viscosity) |
| Vasoconstriction | - decrease radius - less flow - increase resistance |
| Vasodilation | - increase radius - more flow - decrease resistance |
| Lift (L) | (1/2)*Lift Coefficient(Cl)*density*surface area(SA)*velocity(v)^2 |
| Clingfish | Attaches rough surfaces by: - microscopic hairs - mucus layers - soft rim |
| stance | foot in contact |
| swing | foot in air |
| Measuring Joint & Muscle Moments | muscle moment arm(r)*Muscle force(Fm)=Joint moment arm(R)*Ground Reaction Force(G) |
| Limb Effective Mechanical Advantage (EMA) | Ground Reaction Force (G)/Muscle Force (Fm) ; higher EMA=lower effort, lower EMA= higher effort |
| viscoelastic | resists shear flow and strain linearly with time when a stress is applied; strains when stretched and quickly return to their original state once the stress is removed; therefore exhibits time-dependent strain. |
| Reynolds Number | critical for describing fluid flow; Fi/Fv = inertial forces/viscous forces; high RE, high turbulence, low RE, laminar flow |
| principle of continuity | P1V1=P2V2 |
| Frank-starling law of the heart | increase in end-diastolic volume results in a more forceful contraction |
| Flight and swim rotation | pitch = up-and-down "nod" movement; roll = rotation sideways; yaw = sideway movement |
| Parts of a fish | paired fins: pectoral and pelvic fins; median fins: dorsal, caudal, anal fins |
| Forces on a fish | buoyant, thrust, weight, drag |
| Thrust force | change in momentum of vortex/change in time |
| High aspect ratio | longer body, less surface area |
| Low aspect ratio | shorter body, more surface area |
| BCF (Body/Caudal Fin) | periodic propulsion; cyclically repeating kinematics; lower power, sustainable |
| BCF Transient | brief non-repeating kinematics, high power |
| MPF (Median Paired Fins) | brief or long term variable kinematics, high speed low acceleration, feeding motion |
| Barnacle cement | 90% protein, coagulates and polymerizes like blood cots in humans |
| echinoderms | starfish; stick with a 3 part adhesion. two parts are adhesive cells, one part is for detachment |
| walk | inverted pendulum, energy exchange between KE and PE |
| run | exchange between PE and KE, with work and stored energy |
| Stress scale to mass | Stress = F/A = [m^(3/3)]/[m^(2/3)] = m^(1/3) |
| Ground Reaction Force (GRF) | force exerted by the ground back on you; your "weight" |
| 3 ways to contract isometrically (Allen Le) | tendon-muscle, biarticular, muscle-muscle |
| in situ(Allen Le) | in place, animal isn't moving |
| in vivo(Allen Le) | in place, animal is moving |
| in vitro(Allen Le) | out of body |
| sonomicrometry(Allen Le) | measuring muscle length change in vivo |
| newtonian fluid (Allen Le) | single value of viscosity, linear relationship b/w applied shear stress and resulting rate of deformation |
| adhesion(Allen Le) | physical attraction or joining of 2 surfaces |
| two approaches to measure spring mechanism(Allen Le) | 1) measure directly (tendon buckles, EMG, sonomicrometry), 2) external analysis (GRF and Kinematics) |
| vector(Allen Le) | magnitude and direction |
| newton's 3 laws(Allen Le) | 1) body stays rest or stays in motion unless force is applied to it 2)F=MA 3)equal and opposite forces |
| how does length scale with mass(Allen Le) | L=M^1/3 |
| how does area scale with mass(Allen Le) | A=M^2/3 |
| Efficiency(Allen Le) | W in / W out x 100 |
| perfectly elastic(Allen Le) | returns to original shape no energy lost |
| perfectly plastic(Allen Le) | doesn't return to original shape, all energy lost |
| viscoelastic(Allen Le) | returns to original shape after some delay, some energy lost |
| Permanent Adhesion(Allen Le) | involves cement |
| Temporary attachment(Allen Le) | allowing animal to attach strongly but detach quickly when it needs |
| Transitory(Allen Le) | Simultaneous attachment and locomotion |
| Clingfish(Allen Le) | microscopic hairs, suction, form a soft rim on surface, and secrete mucus to bind to rough surfaces |
| Gecko Adhesion(Allen Le) | millions of microscopic hairs - use van Der waal's forces. Attaches to smooth surfaces |
| Turbulence | destroys streamlines, high rates of sheer, viscous dissipation of energy |
| Vortex | a packet of spinning fluid, cannot end in open space |
| Gliding | using potential energy to offset drag; animal descends relative to air |
| Soaring | gliding in upwardly moving air. Three kinds: slope soaring, circles to stay in thermal, dynamic soaring |
| Tip vortex | lost energy |
| Angle of attack | angle between airfoil and airfoil axis. If more than 15 degrees, there will be no lift |
| Thrust | the forward component of F_aero |
| Aspect ratio | length^2/surface area length/cord |
| Wing loading | mass/surface area (of wing) |
| Types of organismal attachment/adhesion | 1- Permanent: involves cement 2- Temporary: allows animals to attach strongly but detach quickly 3- Transitory 3- Transitory: simultaneous attachment and locomotion |
| Geckos (adhesion) | microscopic hair made from keratin, van der waals interactions |
| Muscle moment | r x F_m (muscle moment arm x muscle force) |
| Joint moment | R x G (joint moment arm x ground reaction force) |
| Tipping point | Size of Base of Support (BoS)/ height of Center of Mass (CoM) |
| Autotomy | self-amputation of appendages; muscular contractions break vertebrae at autotomy plane |
| Which Fins prevent Rolling in Fish | Median Fins |
| Which fins prevent Pitching | Paired Fins |
| Which Fins prevents Yawning | All fins (Median and paired)` |
| Digital practical image Velocimetry | A device that utilizes a strong beam of laser and silver particles to reflect the formation of vortex in relation to fin movement to understand the biomechanics of swimming. |
| Thrust force | Momentum of vortex/ Time it took to form the vortex |
| Momentum of vortex | water density (rho) *Circulation vortex * A (Surface area of the vortex)(pi*r^2) |
| Circulation of vortex | Avg. Tangential velocity * Circumference (2*pi*r) |
| Aspect ratio | (leading edge)^2/ Area |
| High aspect ratio fin | Long fin and smaller surface area minimal drag long distance swimming because they have longer drag High efficiency |
| Low aspect ratio fin | Short and larger area |
| C-start Mechanism | Mauther cell, 1) pairs of neurons run down each side of the body 2) discharge muscle contraction 3) one side is inhibited 4) C-shape Formed 5) Used in escaping |
| S-strart Mechanism | -prey capture -slower than C-start -More accurate than C-start -simultaneous muscle contraction |
| Static Stability | A vertical line passing through Center of Mass (CoM) will fall within base of support (BoS) |
| Hydrostatic stability in Fish | Fish are always hydrostatically stable becaus ethe use fin muscle to prevent rolling upside down. |
| Dynamic Stability | Active property that always relies on feedback to bring back the animal to normal movement after perturbation. |
| Joint Flexor Moment | When the angle of the joint is below 180 degrees on the side facing the Ground Reaction Force |
| Permanent Organismal Attachment | Involves cement |
| Temporary Organismal Attachment | Allowing animal to attach strongly, but detach quickly |
| Transitory Organismal Attachment | Simultaneous attachment + locomotion |
| Static Stability | Passive property; forces acting on body are at equilibrium. Based on the location of the center of mass relative to base of support. |
| Tipping Point | Size of base of support/center of mass |
| Dynamic Stability | Active property; relies on constant feedback, sometimes feet forward control |
| Robustness | Max perturbation that an animal can handle |
| Tail Stability | Can be used for climbing, mid-air righting, and jumping |
| Centripetal Force | mv^2/r |
| Muscle Moment | r*Fm |
| Joint Moment | R*G |
| Joint Extensor Moment | When the angle of the joint is above 180 degrees on the side facing the Ground Reaction Force |
| Compressive Stress | Force is perpendicular to the area acted upon, and acts to 'squeeze' the surface |
| Flexural Stress | Force acts to 'bend' the material, and combines shear, tensile and compressive stresses |
| Torsional Stress | Force acts to 'twist' the material. Multiple stresses involved |
| Pressure | Force over area, acts omnidirectional |
| Potential Energy | Energy due to an object's position in space. (mass) x (acceleration due to gravity) x (height) |
| Kinetic Energy | Energy due to an object's velocity. (mass) x (velocity)^2 x (1/2) |
| Conservation of Energy | Total energy in a system is constant. This does not preclude the energy from changing forms (eg. potential energy can become kinetic energy) |
| Conservation of Momentum | Momentum is constant for an object. (mass) x (velocity) |
| Higher Effective Mechanical Advantage | lower effort |
| Lower Effective Mechanical Advantage | higher effort |
| Change in Elastic Storage | Change in Kinetic energy + Change in Potential energy |
| Circulation | vortex stuck to a wing |
| Conservation of Angular Momentum | Angular momentum is constant for an object. (mass) x (angular velocity) x (radius)^2 |
| Camber | The shape of a wing. Crucial to determining lift |
| Scaling | Determining how two variables relate to one another. For example, recognizing volume is approximately (length)^3 |
| Center of Mass (CoM) | A point which we can model as the center of the distribution of mass. As long as the CoM is above the BoS, the object/organism is statically stable |
| Base of Support (BoS) | Area defined by supportive struts of object or organism. As long as the CoM is above the BoS, the object/organism is statically stable |
| Perturbation | A force that threatens the stability of the object or organism at hand. For example, a gust of wind on a tree, or a person trying to tip a cow because, well, people do that sort of thing, apparently. |
| Upright animal | Has low muscle and decreased static stability. |
| Turning | The force required to turnaround a curve with a radius r. |
| Locomotion | the ability to move from one place to another; movement |
| Mauthner Cell | A pair of neurons that runs down each side of the body and are responsible for very fast escape reflexes. |
| Streamline | Line of fluid where the local flow of velocity is tangent. |
| Resilience | Elasticity of an object; the ability of an object to spring back into shape. |
| Plasticity | The quality of being easily shaped. |
| Stiffness | The quality of being strong. |
| Toughness | The ability to withstand rough handling and adverse conditions. |
| Viscosity | The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency because of internal forces. |
| Viscous Forces | The force between a body and a fluid that moves past it in a direction opposite of the flow of the fluid that passes the object. |
| Inertia | The property of matter that keeps it at constant rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an outside force. |
| Inertial force | The force that resists a change in the velocity of an object. |
| Motor Unit | One motor neuron and all the fibers it innervates. |
| Muscle Spindle | Sensory receptors in the muscle that senses the changes in muscle length. |
| upright animal | low muscle force due to high EMA BUT decreased static stability |
| crouched animal | high muscle force due to low EMA BUT increased static stability |
| Shear Modulus | Shear Stress/Shear Strain |
| Strain | Delta Length/Initial Length |
| Conservation of Mass | a principle stating that mass cannot be created or destroyed. |
| Allometry | study of the relationship of body size to shape, anatomy, physiology |
| Allometric growth | The regular and systematic pattern of growth such that the mass or size of any organ or part of a body can be expressed in relation to the total mass or size of the entire organism |
| external pertubation | can be external / internal - environment: obstacle, height, friction - external: carry offspring / prey - feeding - partintion autonomy |
| Hooke's Law | force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance X is proportional to that distance. |
| primary forces of flight | lift, weight, drag, thrust |
| adaptation of flight | reduce mass, fuse bones, feathers, wings |
| evolution of flight | birds, bats, insects, pterosaurs |
| stride | stance + swing |
| Where is potential energy highest when walking | Midstance |
| Where is kinetic energy lowest when walking | Midstance |
| Van der waals attractive force (VP) | weak attractive force. frictional force and contact electrification. has direction |
| Types of Attachments | 1. Friction 2. Hooks 3. Locks and snaps 4. Clamps 5. Suction 6. Adhesive Secretions |
| oscillation | repetitive movement, such as an up and down stroke while a fish is swimming |
| undulation | wavelike motion such as stingrays |
| Types of vortices from a bird (VP) | Bound vortex, tip vortex, and starting vortex |
| Forces resisted in adhesion | Drag, Gravity |
| What is turbulent flow associated with? | High drag |
| Breder 1926 | defined mode of swimming based on genus name & patterns of motion |
| Thrust Force | density x circulation of vortex x SA of circle |
| Systole (VP) | contraction |
| Diastole (VP) | relaxation |
| Lift is perpendicular to? | Air flow |
| Drag is parallel to | Fluid flow |
| High AR for fins | minimual drag, good for long distance swimming. shape decreases viscous drag by low SA = efficent |
| Low AR for fins | create drag, good for stop, turn, and burst of speed = inefficent. shape increases viscous drag by increasing SA |
| Wingbeat (VP) | downstroke and upstroke(recovery phase) |
| Trade off | a balance achieved between two desirable but incompatible features; a compromise |
| 3 types of vortex on a wing | 1. Tip vortex 2. Bound vortex 3. Starting vortex - vortex can't end in open space, must circle on self or to a solid structure |
| Rheotaxis (VP) | fish turning to face an incoming current |
| Dorsal fins prevent | Rolling |
| Dorsal fin | an unpaired fin on the back of a fish |
| Why do birds fly in formation? | the wings provide lift with the tip vortex and saves 20% energy for the neighboring birds from their tip vortex |
| Caudal fin | Tail fin |
| Pectoral fin | each of a pair of fins situated on either side just behind a fish's head, helping to control the direction of movement during locomotion |
| Which fins help prevent yawing | All fins |
| Pectoral fins are used for | Pitching |
| How do we visualize vortices | Digital Particle Image Velocimetry |
| Flapping fins | Up + down |
| Rowing fins | Fins row back and forth, drag based thrust |
| How is lift created? | The airfoil on the top has a longer path and has a higher velocity, so the pressure is lower. Below the airfoil has a lower velocity so the pressure is higher. Pressure goes from high to low so lift is created with a circulation that goes down to up. |
| Name an advantage Cling fish have over Geckos | -Due to their soft rim they can attach to rough surfaces. Geckos rely on contact of hair so they require a smooth surface. dustin -the release of mucus allows Cling fish to attach to wet surfaces |
| What is the difference in a force versus times graph for running and walking? | Running has a higher peak force and ends earlier while walking has a lower peak force. dustin -the area between the two graphs are the same. |
| As body size increases = GRF (increases/decreases)? | increases dustin |
| Explain the trade off between high and low aspect ratio | High would create minimal drag due to reduce in surface area -> long distance flying Low would create drag because of increase in surface are -> Manuevarability dustin |
| What is the drawbacks of C-start | always accelerate in another direction dustin |
| Explain the trade off between EMA and stability | High EMA = low muscle force and low static stability ->upright Low EMA = High muscle force and High static stability -> crouched dustin |
| External flexor moment | r/R=G/Fm R is changing --> Fm will change to counteract it. dustin |
| Explain the wing loading trade off | High wing loading -> small wings to fly dustin Low wing loading --> fly constantly and slowly |
| Whats the difference between C-start and s-start | c-start is a unilateral muscle contraction while s-start contracts multiple parts of the body. dustin |
| Difference between BCF periodic and BCF transient | BCF periodic is repeating and small acceleration BCF transitory is non repeating and high acceleration. dustin |
| what is the primary mechanism that allows geckos adhesion | Van der Wals Interaction density of hair is 1 million/mm^2 dustin |
| Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for energy conservation. (Peter P.) | Body => Tendon => Body |
| Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for power production. (Peter P.) | Muscle => Tendon => Body |
| Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for energy absorption. (Peter P.) | Body => Tendon => Muscle |
| Parallel muscle (Peter P.) | Fibers or fascicles run the length of the muscle body. |
| Pinnate muscle (Peter P.) | Fibers or fascicles are angled relative to the long axis of the muscle belly. |
| Irrotational vortex (Peter P.) | One in which the different layers of fluid are rotating at different velocities. |
| Size principle of motor unit recruitment (Peter P.) | As demand increases on the neuromuscular system, more motor units will be recruited. As the recruitment increases, additional (and larger) motor units will be added and force will rise exponentially. |
| Peak Power (Peter P.) | 30% of Vmax |
| Positive Allometry (Peter P.) | When something scales with size at a faster rate than is expected by isometry. |
| Muscle Fiber (Type 1) (Peter P.) | Slow, oxidative. Allows you to perform slow behaviors that require endurance, but not a lot of force. |
| Muscle Fiber (Type 2A) (Peter P.) | Fast, oxidative-glycolytic. Allows you to perform fast behaviors with some resistance to fatigue. |
| Muscle Fiber (Type 2B) (Peter P.) | Fast, glycolytic. Allows you to perform fast behaviors that require a lot of force and quick response, due to its high innervation ratio. |
| Questions that can be answered using motion analysis. (Peter P.) | 1. Descriptions of behavior. 2. How particular performance measures are achieved? 3. How do organisms respond to different treatments? |
| First class lever (Peter P.) | Fulcrum placed between the effort and load. |
| Second class lever (Peter P.) | Load in-between the effort and the fulcrum. |
| Third class lever (Peter P.) | Effort between the load and the fulcrum. |
| What are the two ends of the continuum for modes of swimming? | Undulation to Oscillation |
| Webb 1984 | Proposed BCF periodic, BCF transient, MPF, and Ocassional modes of swimming. |
| What does stride length x stride frequency =? | speed |
| How does CSA scale to Mass? | CSA = Mass^(2/3) |
| What is the major antagonistic force in aquatic locomotion? | Drag |
| What are the 3 factors involved in contractile force of muscles? | size of MU, # of MU involved, thicknes off muscle cells. |
| What does "all-or-nothing" refer to when discussing Motor Units? | All fibers innervated by the neuron of the motor unit will all contract when an action potential and will not contract when an action potential is not fired. |
| What is motor unit recruitment? | process of increasing and conferring activation of motor units to produce more force. |
| Blood Velocity | Flow/CSA of blood vessels |
| What happens to a vortex when its radius increases? | velocity decreases |
| What is the midpoint during a walk | the highest point reached |
| what is the midpoint during a run | the lowest point reached |
| What is stride length? | Distance |
| What kind of ______ joint moment must have occured for an extensor muscle moment to balance it? | flexor |
| What kind of ______ muscle moment must have occured for an extensor joint moment to balance it? | flexor |
| Steps of Feeding (VP) | 1.) locate prey and move to prey. 2.) Capture/subdue prey. 3.) process/ingest prey |
| Sensory systems (VP) | Vision, smell, sound, mechanical, temperature |
| Performance (VP) | Ability to perform ecologically relevant task |
| Jaw Protrusion (VP) | Move flow closer to prey |
| Hyoid depression and cranial elevation (VP) | Expands mouth cavity |
| Diversity of feeding (VP) | Prey type and medium of the habitat |
| Epaxial muscle (VP) | Cranial elevation |
| Sternohyoid (VP) | Hyoid retraction |
| Hypaxial muscle (VP) | Cleithrum retraction |
| Ways animal feed | filter feeding, suction feeding dustin |
| suction feeding mode | H2O to entrain the pray small mouth rapid prey velocity small non evasive prey dustin |
| Ram feeding mode | predatro over take the prey large mouth rapid predator velocity pursue evasive prey. |
| Explain mechanism for tongue projection | tongue is attached to front of the mouth. muscle contracts -> pulls base of the tongue down inertia extends soft mass of tongue when tongue flips out of mouth. dustin |
| Hysterisis | percent energy lost, can be found by calculating the area between the curves |
| Resilin | facilitates flexibility in wings, 50% water, 90% efficiency |
| Resilience Modulus | |
| J-shaped curve | compliant to a point then just stiff, examples include arteries of human circulatory system and neck muscle of deer |
| keratin | beta-keratin stronger than alpha-keratin, structural protein found in integument of vertebrates |
| fascicles | bundle of muscle fibers |
| sacromere | made up of thick myosin filament and thin actin filament |
| myosin | thick filament, motor protien, structure: head=ATPase, tail=binding, neck=regulates ATPase |
| actin | thin filament |
| why is ATP important in muscle contraction? | required for detachment of myosin from actin |
| why is Calcium important in muscle contraction? | required for attachment of myosin to actin |
| Sliding Filament Model (SFM) | similar to pulling a rope, alternating cycle of grasping and releasing the rope with actin=rope and myosin=hand |
| what is the trade-off for super fat muscle? | low force and high velocity |
| What are some differences between suction and ram fish? | Suction fish-small mouth, rapid prey velocity, small and non-evasive prey Ram fish-large mouth, rapid predator velocity, evasive prey |
| Which muscles are used for jaw profusion in fish? | epaxial muscle, sternohyoid, and hypaxial muscle |
| Equation used for mammalian chewing | out moment (FoLo) = muscle moment (LiFi) |
| Fatigue | 1. Everyone experiences fatigue 2. Fatigue ability increases with age 3. Critical for survival 4. Important for many clinical conditions. |
| Muscle Fatigue | a reduction in maximum muscle force due to exercise |
| Two factors in fatigue | central and peripheral |
| Factors in central fatigue | adenosine, cognitive aspect, mental tiredness, inhibition of motoneurons due to muscle input, discharge frequency of spinal motor neurons |
| Factors in peripheral fatigue | lactic acid, glycogen depletion, sarcomere damage, acetylcholine depletion, increase extracellular K+, increase inorganic phosphate from breakdown of creatine phosphate |
| adenosine | reduces arousal and inhibits excitatory neurotransmitters in brain |
| lactic acid | performance enhancer that increases force |
| Late 1800s study in relation to exercise | In a matter of 2 weeks 1. strength training in one arm --> trained arm 70% increased force, arm not trained 40% increase force 2. control --> no change in strength |
| 1992 study in relation to exercise | Showed how important CNS is 1. control --> no change in strength 2. subjects exercised --> 30% increased force 3. subjects imagined they exercised --> 22% increased force |
| Human Training | individuals respond differently, could be related to ACE gene |
| Mosso's Findings (1891) | first to state that individuals vary with fatigue, even though test subjects all did same task and age still different results |
| 4 Basic Aerodynamic Forces | Thrust, Lift, Drag, Weight |
| External joint moments on graph | Moment (N*m) on y-axis Time (s) on x-axis + <180 = flexor joint moment, extensor muscle moment - > 180 = extensor joint moment, flexor muscle |
| Fatigue ability | defined as time it takes for muscle to fatigue |
| for walking when is PE highest? | midstance |
| what blocks adenosine receptors? | caffeine |
| dorsal | back |
| ventral | stomach side |
| anterior | towards head |
| posterior/caudal | towards bottom |
| proximal | near center |
| lateral | towards side |
| what makes a good morphological description? | you can draw a basic map of the features based on the description |
| homology | shared characteristics due to a common ancestor |
| morphospace | graph describing morphologies where each axis represents a character or even a combination of characters |
| disparity | measure of how variable a group is |
| medial | midline |
| distal | far from center |
| constraints | restriction, limitation or bias in the course of evolution 3 major types: phylogenetic, developmental, functional |
| Morphology | The study and description of form |
| What features make up a good morphological description? | -anatomical terms of location -features that are close to the point of interest -points of reference to describe a feature -concise and consistent |
| Theoretical morphology | Defining what are the possible forms by using mathematical and geometric rules |
| In morphospace what do the points closer in space represent? | Represents forms that look very similar to each other |
| In morphospace, what do the points farther in space represent? | Represents forms that look very different from each other |
| Phylogenetic constraint | constraint based on the trajectory the group has historically taken |
| Developmental Constraint | The developmental pathway is constrained in a particular way |
| Functional Constraint | The form may not be physically possible or not suited to an animal’s needs |
| What are the types of relationships that morphology can have with performance? | one to one mapping one to many mapping many to one mapping many to many mapping |
| One to one mapping | one morphological trait can be related to one functional trait |
| One to many mapping | One morphological trait is related to many functional traits |
| Many to one mapping | Many forms can perform the same function (when one function is made up of 3 or more parts) |
| Many to many mapping | Multiple forms affect multiple functions |
| Redundancy | the more parts, the more potential there is for this relationship |
| What is MicroCT and list 3 different modeling techniques | MicroCT helps with capturing 3D complex shapes Techniques: computational fluid dynamics X-Romm and animation Finite Element Analysis |
| Duty factor - walking | Each leg contacts the ground for more than half the total stride time - duty factor > 50% |
| Adjust speed in gaits | By changing stride length but not usually stride frequency. |
| Power related to two gaits | Going slower, walking is cheaper; going faster, running is cheaper. |
| Compressive stress rule | All animals hit about the same peak compressive stress in their leg bones. |
| weakening of coral reefs | increased wave forces and lowering of pH |
| components of reproductive isolation | Hybrid inviability and Migrant inferiority, both informing Biomechanics |
| phenotypic plasticity | non-genetic differences in phenotypes |
| Bone compressive strength | about 200 megapascals |
| Load carrying - humans | that the cost of carrying a load by a human male differs in no significant way from the cost of self-transport. |
| GT speed | speed at which fish go from pectoral to caudal fins |
| Lauder paper purpose | How to measure thrust in fluid |
| linking biomechanics and speciation | stablishing the genetic basis of biomechanical traits, testing whether similar and divergent selection lead to biomechanical divergence, testing whether/howbiomechanical traits affect RI |
| Muscle CSA scale body mass | overall muscle cross section will scale with body mass to the power 0.67—indistinguishable from 0.68. |
| Transport cost scale body mass | the minimum metabolic cost of transport scales with body mass to the power –0.32 |
| Galloping | An asymmetrical gait - the paired legs - the two front legs operate almost simultaneously, as do the two hind legs - don’t synchronize exactly, with one always striking just before the other. |
| Prey Type (Hoon) | Evasive vs sessile Hard vs soft Large vs small |
| Sensory Sytems (Hoon) | Characteristics to locate prey and move to it Vision, Smell, Sound, Mechanical, Temperature |
| Frog Tongue Projection (Hoon) | Tongue is attached to front of mouth. Muscle contracts and pull bottom of the tongue down which causes tip of tongue to flip out of mouth |
| Walking Stride (Hoon) | KE and PE energy exchanged during locomotion (Out of phase) |
| Running Stride (Hoon) | KE and PE not equally exchanged. Delta U = Delta KE + Delta PE |
| Isometric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Same length during a contraction Ex. Holding a book |
| Concentric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Muscle shortening when generating force Ex. Lifting an object |
| Eccentric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Muscle lengthening when generating force Ex. Slowly lowering an object |
| Jumping bush babies movement (Hoon) | Fast motor units recruited without slow muscles |
| Fish escape response (Hoon) | Fish can recruit white muscles only to maximize short term escape speed |
| Muscle Spindles (Hoon) | Sensory receptors within muscle to detect changes in length. Prevent overstretch |
| Golgi Tendon Organ (Hoon) | Senses changes in muscle force to prevent muscle damag |
| Positive work loop (Hoon) | Shortening of muscle on a Force x Length Curve (Concentric contraction) |
| Negative Work loop (Hoon) | Lengthening of muscle on a Force x Length Curve (Eccentric Contraction) |
| Pennation Angle (Hoon) | A pennate or pinnate muscle (also called a penniform muscle) is a muscle with fascicles that attach obliquely (in a slanting position) to its tendon. These types of muscles generally allow higher force production but smaller range of motion When a muscle |
| Anteromedial (Julia) | anterior + medial |
| Theoretical morphology (Julia) | What things could look like in comparison to what things actually look like |
| Theoretical morphospace (Julia) | Not constructed by measuring already existing forms; Uses simulation and therefore creates a map of all existing forms adhering to designated rules. |
| 3 Major Types of Constraints (Julia) | 1. Phylogenetic Constraint 2. Development Constraint 3. Functional Constraint |
| One to One Mapping (Julia) | Assumes one morphological trait related to one function; measure what is thought to be a biomechanically relevant trait; often use these results to predict of a untested animal |
| One to Many Mapping: Facilitation (Julia) | Tells us that the demands of related different functions may be similar in some way; e.g. Leg length, jump height, & sprint speed |
| One to Many Mapping: Trade-Off (Julia) | May tell us that relating functions are competing in some way; e.g. pennation angle, contraction force, and contraction speed |
| Many to One Mapping (Julia) | a potential mechanism of weakening trade-offs; i.e. If one part of the function fails, other parts can make up for it |
| Four bar linkages in fish (Julia) | Depending on the shape of the four bar linkage, opening the jaw will cause the upper jaw to rotate to different degrees |
| Geometric morphometrics (Julia) | Method of quantifying shape by placing landmarks on homologous structures across many specimens; Gives us methods for better information than linear measurements; Creates morphospaces where the axes are combinations of variables |
| X-Romm (Julia) | X-ray video taken through time and can be either 2D or 3D; fluorescent markers are used to track points in the skeleton to see how specifically the bones move; the video can be enhanced by designating the same points to a microCT model to align the bones |
| Finite element analysis (Julia) | method for prediction how model reacts to real world forces: break down 3D models into manageable "bricks" - tiny parts; apply physics equations based on their material properties that are told to the computer |
| Turbulence (Julia) | the random motion of fluid in space and time |
| Gliding (Julia) | always descending, losing air speed |
| Wing beat in flapping flight (true flight) (Julia) | down stroke (flapping down) = high force, up stroke (recovery) = low force; the forward component of the two actions creates thrust |
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