BIO 208 Exam #1
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| Biology | natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy
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| Levels of Biological Organization | 1. Biosphere
2. Ecosystems
3. Communities
4. Populations
5. Organisms
6. Organs and Organ Systems
7. Tissues
8. Cells
9. Organelles
10. Molecules
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| Emergent Property | A novel property that unpredictably comes from a combination of two simpler constituents
Ex) Salt composed from sodium and chlorine
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| Cell Theory | A cell is the smallest and simplest unit that displays all properties of life
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| Prokaryotic Cells | small and simple. DNA is not in nuclei
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| Eukaryotic Cells | large and complex. DNA is in nuclei
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| Cell Division | Produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical
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| Differentiation | Produces cells with different properties and capabilities
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| Central Dogma | DNA undergoes Replication and Transcription ---> RNA undergoes Translation ---> Protein
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| What is life on Earth marked by? | Diversity and Unity
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| Common features of ALL cells | DNA is the genetic material
Conserved genetic code
Ribosomes synthesize proteins
Conserved enzymatic pathways (e.g., glycolysis)
ATP is the universal “energy currency”
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| Any scientific theory has the potential to be... | disproved
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| Extant | Currently living
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| Homology | A trait is similar in extant organisms because it also was present in the common ancestor of these organisms
Ex) Forelimbs of mammals
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| Analogy | traits similar due to separate evolution in response to similar environmental challenges
Ex) Flagella
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| Mechanism | Environment cannot support all individuals. Individuals best fit to survive pass on their traits
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| Scientific Method | 1. Observation
2. Questions
3.Hypotheses
4. Predictions
5. Theory
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| Experiments must: | 1. Include controls
2. Test only one or a few variables
3. Give reproducible results
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| Matter | has mass; takes up space
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| Element | substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions
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| Atom | the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element
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| Compound | two or more different elements in a fixed ratio (e.g., NaCl and CO2)
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| Molecule | : elements joined by covalent bonds; 1) fixed ratios and 2) specific bonding patterns
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| Percentage of Elements that are essential to life | 20-25%
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| What elements make up 96% of living matter | Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
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| Most of the 4% that makes up the rest of living matter is? | Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Sulfur
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| Trace Elements | Elements required by an organism only in minute quantities
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| Atomic Number | Number of protons in the nucleus
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| Atomic Mass | Number of protons and neutrons
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| Isotope | atoms that have the same # of P but different # of N
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| Half-Life | How long it takes for an element's mass to decay by half
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| Biological Uses of Isotopes | Carbon Dating, Tracers, Cell Killing
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| Energy | The ability to do work
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| Valence Electron Shell | Outermost shell that holds electrons
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| Number of Electrons that can be held in: n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 | 2, 8, 18, 32
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| 3 Rules of Atomic Stability | Octet Rule, Electroneutrality, e- are paired
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| Which group of elements are the only ones to satisfy all 3 Stability rules? | Noble Gases
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| Covalent Bonds | 2 atoms SHARE one or more pairs of electrons
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| Ions | Charged atoms
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| Ionic Bonds | Opposite charges attract each other
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| Hydrogen Bonds | Occurs BETWEEN partially positive and partially negative atoms
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| Van der Waals Interactions | Attractions between molecules that are close together as a result of their charges
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| Chemical Equilibrium | When the rate of reaction is the same forward as it is in reverse
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| Polar Covalent Bonds | Occur WITHIN some molecules
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| Cohesion | Water sticks to itself
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| Adhesion | Water is attracted to other polar molecules
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| Specific Heat | The heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 degree Celsius
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| 1000 calories is how many dietetic Calories? | 1
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| Ice is more dense than water. (True/False) | False
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| Solvent | Water
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| Solutes | Dissolved materials
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| Solution | Water plus solutes
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| Polar Molecules | Form H-Bonds with water; Hydrophilic
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| Non-Polar Molecules | Hydrophobic
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| Molecular Weight | Sum of atmoic masses
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| Avogadro's Number | 6.02x10^23. Is equivalent to 1 mole of atoms
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| Molarity | Moles/Liter
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| Acid | Proton Donor
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| Base | Proton Acceptor
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| pH | -log of the concentration of hydrogen ions
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| pH of pure water | 7
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| pH less than 7 | acid
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| pH more than 7 | base
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| When pH is 7, conentration of hydrogen ions? Hydroxide ions? | 10^-7
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| Buffer | Resists changes to the pH when acids or bases are introduced
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| Vitalism | The concept that organic matter possesses a special force or vital force inherent to things living
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| Why do atoms form covalent bonds? | To complete their valence shell
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| Hydrocarbons | Rich in carbons and hydrogens; non-polar
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| Isomers | Molecules that have the same empirical formula, but different arrangements of atoms
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| 3 types of isomers | Structural, Cis-Trans, Enantiomers
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| Functional Groups | Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Sulfhydral, and Phosphate
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| Hydroxyl (Compound Name, Polar or Non-Polar) | Alcohol, Polar
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| Carbonyl (Compound Name, Polar or Non-Polar) | Ketones/Aldeyde, Polar
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| Carboxyl (Compound Name, Polar or Non-Polar) | Carboxylic acid/Organic Acid, Polar
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| Amines (Compound Name, Polar or Non-Polar) | Amine, Polar
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| Sulfydryl (Compound Name, Polar or Non-Polar) | Thiols/ Mercaptans/Sulfur Alcohols, Polar
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| Phosphates (Compound Name, Polar or Non-Polar) | Organic Phosphates, Polar
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| Methyl (Compound Name) | Methylated Compound
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| Polymers | Long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
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| What are Polymers made up of? | Monomers
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| Functions of Polymers | Storage, Structure, Information
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| How are monomers formed to form polymers? | Deydration synthesis or Condensation
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| How are polymers broken down? | Hydrolysis
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| Monosaccharides (General Formula) | (CH2O)n
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| Functions of Monosaccharides | Energy Storage, Structure, Information
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| What covalently join monosaccharides to make disaccharides? | Glycosidic Linkages
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| Starch | Contains only glucose and can be branched or unbranched
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| Glycogen | Contains only glucose
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| Cellulose | Major structural component of plant cell walls
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| 3 types of Lipids | Triglycerides, Phospholipids, and Steroids
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| Ester Linkage | A fatty acid is joined by its carboxyl group to glycerol
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| Fat Molecule | 3 fatty acids attached to one glycerol by ester linkages
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| Enzymatic Proteins Function | Selective acceleration of chemical reactions
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| Defensive Proteins Function | Protection against disease
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| Storage Proteins Function | Storage of amino acids
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| Transport Proteins Function | Transport of substances
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| Hormonal Proteins Function | Coordination of an organism activities
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| Receptor Proteins Function | Response of cell to chemical stimuli
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| Contractile and Motor Proteins Function | Movement
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| Structural Proteins | Support
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| Amino acids are made up of? | Amino group, alpha carbon, R group, and a carboxyl group
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| 3 groups of amino acids | Hydrophobic R-groups, Polar Uncharged R-groups, Charged R-groups, and
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| What is the repeating pattern of the peptide backbone? | NCC-NCC-NCC
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| What is a protein's function dependent on? | Its 3D structure
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| 4 structures of proteins | Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary
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| Primary Structure (# of possible sequences) | It is the order oor sequence of AA's; 20^n
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| Secondary Structure (2 types) | 1. alpha helix 2. beta pleated sheet
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| Tertiary Structure Influenced by? | Primary Structure, Secondary Structure, and interactions between R groups
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| 4 Interactions between R-groups | H-Bonds, Hydrophobic Interactions, Ionic Bonds, Disulfide Bridges
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| When is a protein functional? | When it is in its native conformation
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| What does native conformation require? | Normal pH, temperature, and salt concentration
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| What happens when you change the conditions for a protein? | It denatures the protein
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| How do you restore a proteins' function and structure? | By restoring the normal conditions (doesn't always work)
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| What helps fold proteins? | Chaperonins
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| Parts of Chaperonins | Cap and the Hollow Cylinder
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| Normal cellular proteins that can fold into an abnormal configuration that causes other normal proteins to refold into the bad configuration | Prions
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| What do nucleotides contain? | 1. A phosphate group 2. Pentose sugar 3. Nitrogenous base
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| Nitrogenous Bases | Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil, Adenine, and Guanine
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| Pyrimidines | Cytosine, Thymine (in DNA), and Uracil (in RNA)
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| Purines | Adenine and Guanine
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| Polarity of Nucleotides run from... | 5'-phosphate end to the 3'-hydroxyl end
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| DNA's structure name | Double Helix
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| In the DNA structure, what faces outward and what faces inward? | Inward: Nitrogenous Bases Outward: Sugar-Phosphate backbones
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| Which nitrogenous bases have the strongest bonds? Why? | C-G because they have 3 hydrogen bonds
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| How many H bonds do A-T have? | 2
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| Are the 2 DNA strands parallel or antiparallel? | Antiparellel
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| What does Uracil replace in RNA? | Thymine
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| Special types of RNA? | mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
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| Resolution of the human eye? | 100 micrometers
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| Resolution of the light microscope? | 0.2 micrometers
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| Resolution of the electron microscope? | 0.002 micrometers
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| kilo- | 10^3
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| hecto- | 10^2
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| deka- | 10^1
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| deci- | 10^-1
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| centi- | 10^-2
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| milli- | 10^-3
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| micro- | 10^-6
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| nano- | 10^-9
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| Who invented the microscope and when? | Robert Hooke in 1590
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| Microscope Parameters | Magnification, resolution, and contrast
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| Types of Light Microscopy | Brightfield, Phase-contrast, Flourescence, Deconvolution, Confocal, Super-Resolution
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| Types of Electron Microscopy | Scanning and Transmission
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| What does the Scanning EM show? | Cell structures
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| What does the Transmission EM show? | Details of internal structures
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| LM vs. EM Illumination | LM: uses light; EM: uses electron beam in vacuum
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| LM vs. EM Lenses | LM: glass; EM: electromagnets
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| LM vs. EM Specimen Prep | LM: living or dead; EM: dead
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| LM vs. EM Image capture | Both are now digital
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| Cell Fractionation | Form of centrifuging that yields "fractions" enriched in organelles or structures depending on the speed
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| Cell Fractionation: P1 | yields nuclei and cell debris
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| Cell Fractionation: P20 | yields mitochondria, chloroplasts, and lysosomes
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| Cell Fractionation: P80 | yields microsomal membrane (Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Plasma Membrane)
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| Cell Fractionation: P150 | yields ribosomes
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| Cell Fractionation: S150 | yields cytosol, proteins, amino acids, ions, etc.
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| Do small cells have a low or high surface area to volume ratio? | High
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| Structure of Plasma Membrane | Hydrophilic outside region --> Hydrophobic middle region --> Hydrophilic inner region
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| Prokaryotic Cells Major Components | Plasma Membrane, Cytoplasm, DNA, Ribosomes, Cell Wall, Flagella, Pili and capsule, usually NO organelles
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| Eukaryotic Cells: Plants and Animals Components | Nucleus, Ribosomes, PM, ER, GA, Mitochondrion
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| Eukaryotic Cells: Animals only | Lysosome, Flagellum, Centriole
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| Eukaryotic Cells: Plants only | Chloroplast, Cell wall, Central vacuole, Plasmodesmata
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| Structures inside the Nucleus | Chromatin, Nuclear Envelope, Nucleolus
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| Ribosomes main function | Protein synthesis
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| Endomembrane System | 1. Ribosomes arrociate with RER and NE and proteins are made 2. Proteins are transported to GA in vesicles 3. Proteins are processed in GA and then transported to their proper destinations in vesicles
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| Golgi Apparatus Function | Takes in proteins where they are then 1. sorted 2. packaged into vessicles 3. delivered to other parts of the cell
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| Lysosome Functions | 1. Degrade food ingested by phagocytosis 2. Breakdown and recycle a cell's own organelles and macromolecules via Autophagy
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| Central Vacuole Functions | 1. Stores water 2. Stores ions 3. Stores proteins 4. Contains hydrolytic enzymes
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