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Jenna Poole 9-13 not
Review for Exam #4
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ligand | Chemical signaling molecule that binds specifically to a receptor |
| Signaling Cell | Cell that manufactures and releases a chemical signal |
| Responding Cell | Target cell equipped with receptors to receive a signal |
| Autocrine Signaling | Cellular communication where a cell targets and signals itself |
| Paracrine Signaling | Short distance communication acting on nearby neighboring cells |
| Endocrine Signaling | Long distance communication where hormones travel through the bloodstream |
| Contact-Dependent Signaling | Direct communication requiring physical contact between adjacent cell membrane proteins |
| Polar Signal | Water soluble signaling molecule that cannot cross the membrane and binds cell surface receptors |
| Nonpolar Signal | Lipid soluble molecule like a steroid hormone that crosses the cell membrane to bind inside |
| Receptor Specificity | Feature where a receptor binds only its complementary ligand based on shape and chemical fit |
| G Protein-Coupled Receptor | Cell surface receptor that activates a G protein to cause rapid short term responses |
| Receptor Kinase | Cell surface receptor that dimerizes and adds phosphate groups to trigger long term gene expression |
| Phosphorylation | Addition of a phosphate group to a protein by a kinase enzyme to alter its activity |
| Ligand-Gated Ion Channel | Membrane channel that opens or closes when a specific ligand binds to allow ion flow |
| Second Messenger | Small intracellular molecule like cAMP that amplifies a signal throughout the cytoplasm |
| Tissue | Group of similar cells working together to perform a specific collective function |
| Epithelial Tissue | Protective tissue lining internal cavities organs and external body surfaces |
| Connective Tissue | Tissue consisting of sparse cells embedded in an abundant extracellular matrix like bone or blood |
| Muscle Tissue | Tissue capable of contracting to produce mechanical force and bodily movement |
| Nervous Tissue | Tissue made of neurons that transmit electrical and chemical signals across the body |
| Cytoskeleton | Internal network of protein fibers giving cells shape mechanical support and movement |
| Microfilaments | Smallest cytoskeletal fibers made of actin double helices for cell shape and movement |
| Intermediate Filaments | Medium sized cytoskeletal cables like keratin that provide high mechanical strength to tissues |
| Microtubules | Largest hollow cytoskeletal tubes made of tubulin for cell division and organelle transport |
| Kinesin | Motor protein that uses ATP to transport vesicles toward the plus end of microtubules |
| Dynein | Motor protein that uses ATP to transport vesicles toward the minus end of microtubules |
| Cadherins | Cell adhesion proteins that physically attach adjacent cells to one another |
| Integrins | Transmembrane adhesion proteins that attach cells to the extracellular matrix or basal lamina |
| Adherens Junctions | Anchoring cell junctions containing cadherins attached internally to actin microfilaments |
| Desmosomes | Button like cell junctions containing cadherins attached internally to intermediate filaments |
| Hemidesmosomes | Cell junctions containing integrins attaching intermediate filaments inside to basal lamina outside |
| Tight Junctions | Impermeable cell junctions preventing fluid and solutes from leaking between epithelial cells |
| Gap Junctions | Protein channels connecting the cytoplasms of adjacent animal cells for direct communication |
| Plasmodesmata | Membrane-lined channels crossing cell walls to directly connect neighboring plant cells |
| Extracellular Matrix | Insoluble mesh of proteins and carbohydrates outside cells offering structural support |
| Collagen | Most abundant animal protein in ECM providing strong tensile strength and structural flexibility |
| Basal Lamina | Specialized thin layer of ECM supporting sheets of epithelial cells |
| Genome | Complete set of genetic material and DNA instructions inside a cell or organism |
| Binary Fission | Method of asexual reproduction and cell division used by prokaryotic bacteria |
| Interphase | Longest phase of the cell cycle where a cell grows replicates DNA and prepares to divide |
| G1 Phase | First growth phase of interphase where the cell synthesizes proteins and increases size |
| G0 Phase | Non-dividing resting state for cells that pause or exit the active cell cycle |
| S Phase | Synthesis phase of interphase where nuclear DNA is completely replicated |
| G2 Phase | Second growth phase where the cell finishes preparing for mitotic division |
| M Phase | Phase of the cell cycle where nuclear division and cytoplasmic division take place |
| Semi-Conservative Replication | DNA copying mechanism where each new double helix keeps one original parental strand |
| Helicase | Enzyme that unwinds and unzips the parental DNA double helix at the replication fork |
| Topoisomerase | Enzyme relieving mechanical strain ahead of the replication fork by unwinding supercoiled DNA |
| Single-Stranded Binding Proteins | Proteins that bind separated single DNA strands to prevent them from reannealing |
| Primase | Enzyme that synthesizes a short RNA primer to provide a starting 3 prime OH end for DNA polymerase |
| DNA Polymerase | Main enzyme adding complementary nucleotides 5 prime to 3 prime and proofreading DNA |
| Leading Strand | Continuous newly synthesized DNA strand built smoothly toward the advancing replication fork |
| Lagging Strand | Discontinuous newly synthesized DNA strand built away from the replication fork in segments |
| Okazaki Fragments | Short discontinuous segments of DNA synthesized on the lagging strand |
| DNA Ligase | Enzyme that seals sugar-phosphate backbone nicks to join Okazaki fragments together |
| Telomeres | Repetitive non-coding DNA caps on chromosome ends protecting genes from being lost during replication |
| Telomerase | Enzyme that extends and maintains telomere length in germ and cancer cells |
| Centrosome | Organelle organizing microtubules and forming the mitotic spindle during cell division |
| Centromere | Constricted region on a chromosome where sister chromatids are joined together |
| Sister Chromatids | Two identical copies of a replicated chromosome joined together at the centromere |
| Homologous Chromosomes | Matching pair of maternal and paternal chromosomes carrying the same genes at identical loci |
| Diploid | Cell containing two full sets of homologous chromosomes abbreviated as 2n |
| Haploid | Cell containing one single set of unpaired chromosomes abbreviated as 1n |
| Prophase | First mitotic stage where chromosomes condense and centrosomes move toward opposite poles |
| Prometaphase | Mitotic stage where the nuclear envelope breaks down and spindle fibers attach to kinetochores |
| Metaphase | Mitotic stage where condensed chromosomes align in a single line along the cell equator |
| Anaphase | Mitotic stage where sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and pull toward opposite poles |
| Telophase | Final mitotic stage where nuclear envelopes reform around decondensing chromosomes at each pole |
| Cytokinesis | Final division of the cytoplasm creating two distinct daughter cells |
| Cyclins | Regulatory proteins whose concentration fluctuates cyclically to control cell cycle timing |
| Cyclin-Dependent Kinases | Enzymes activated by binding cyclins to phosphorylate target proteins driving cell division |
| p53 | Essential tumor suppressor protein that halts the cell cycle or induces apoptosis when DNA is damaged |
| Apoptosis | Genetically programmed cell death process used to eliminate damaged or unneeded cells |
| Anchorage Dependence | Cellular requirement to be attached to a solid surface or matrix in order to divide |
| Density-Dependent Inhibition | Crowding signal where normal cells stop dividing once they form a complete monolayer |
| Genotype | Complete genetic makeup and specific allele combination of an organism |
| Phenotype | Observable physical and functional traits of an organism determined by its genotype |
| Allele | Specific alternative sequence or variant form of a given gene |
| Homozygous | Having two identical alleles for a specific gene |
| Heterozygous | Having two different alleles for a specific gene |
| Somatic Mutation | Non-heritable mutation occurring in body cells that affects only the individual |
| Germ-Line Mutation | Heritable mutation occurring in reproductive gametes that is passed to offspring |
| Silent Mutation | Point mutation changing a single nucleotide without changing the specified amino acid |
| Missense Mutation | Point mutation changing a single nucleotide resulting in a different amino acid |
| Nonsense Mutation | Point mutation changing a coding codon into a premature stop codon |
| Frameshift Mutation | Insertion or deletion of nucleotides altering the triplet reading frame downstream |
| Transposable Elements | Segments of DNA capable of moving or jumping to new locations within the genome |
| Mutagen | Physical or chemical agent that damages DNA and increases the frequency of mutations |
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