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APHY201 Final Exam
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Physiology & The Cell | See following slides |
| What is homeostasis? | The maintenance of a relatively stable environment despite external changes |
| Negative feedback loop | A control mechanism that reverses a change to return a variable toward its set point (i.e. blood glucose rises -> insulin released -> glucose decreases) |
| Ribosomes (definition/function) | Site of protein synthesis; Free ribosomes -> proteins used inside the cell, bound ribosomes -> (rough ER) -> proteins for secretion or membranes |
| Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane | Membrane made of: phospholipid bilayer, embedded proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins/carbohydrates; Functions: selectively permeable, cell communication, transport, and recognition |
| Cell Transport | See following slides |
| Simple Diffusion vs Facilitated Diffusion | Simple Diffusion - movement down a concentration gradient (No ATP, no transport protein); Facilitated Diffusion - movement down concentration gradient through a channel or carrier protein (No ATP required) |
| Osmosis | Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane toward the higher solute concentration |
| Primary Active Transport vs. Secondary Active Transport | PAT - uses ATP directly (i.e. Na+/K+ pump); SAT - uses the energy stored in an ion gradient created by primary active transport (i.e. Na+/glucose cotransporter) |
| Sodium-Potassium Pump Activity | Uses ATP to move: 3 Na+ OUT and 2 K+ IN; Helps maintain resting membrane potential, cell volume regulation, and creates Na+ gradient |
| Neurons | See following slides |
| Dendrite vs Axon (Input vs Output) | Dendrites - receive information (input region); Axon - sends information (output region) |
| Four factors that contribute to resting membrane potential | 1. Potassium leak channels, 2. Small sodium leak, 3. Sodium-Potassium pump, and 4. Negatively charged proteins trapped inside cell |
| Continuous Conduction vs. Saltatory Conduction | Continuous conduction - occurs in unmyelinated axons (slower); Saltatory conduction - occurs in myelinated axons (action potentials "jump" between Nodes of Ranvier and is faster) |
| Phases of action potential (depolarize, repolarize, and hyperpolarize) | Resting -> Threshold -> Depolarization (Na+ channels open) -> Repolarization (K+ channels open) -> Hyperpolarization -> Resting |
| EPSP vs IPSP (depolarize vs hyperpolarize) | Excitatory postsynaptic potential - depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane and makes action potential more likely; Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - hyperpolarizes membrane and makes action potential less likely |
| One neurotransmitter made/released per neuron | Each neuron generally synthesizes and releases one primary neurotransmitter |
| Neuron can have multiple receptors for neurotransmitter | A neuron may possess many different receptor types for neurotransmitters |
| Muscle Cells | See following slides |
| Skeletal vs Cardiac vs Smooth muscle cells | Skeletal - voluntary, striated, and multinucleated; Cardiac - involuntary, striated, and intercalated discs; Smooth - involuntary, non-striated, and found in hollow organs |
| Definition of sarcomere | functions contractile unit of skeletal and cardiac muscle, extends from Z disc to Z disc |
| Function of sarcoplasmic reticulum | Stores and releases calcium during contraction |
| Cross-Bridge Formation | Myosin binds to exposed actin binding sites after calcium binds troponin and moves tropomyosin |
| Neuromuscular Junction | Synapse between motor neuron and skeletal muscle; Neurotransmitter = ACh |
| Purpose of Muscle Tone | Constant low-level muscle contraction that maintains posture and readiness |
| Central Nervous System | See following slides |
| What is found in gray matter vs white matter? | Gray matter - contains cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses; White matter - contains myelinated axons |
| Which lobe has the primary auditory cortex? | Temporal lobe |
| Which lobe processes two-point discrimination? | Parietal lobe through the primary somatosensory cortex |
| What 3 brain areas are used for speech processing? | Broca's Area - speech production, Wernicke's Area - language comprehension, and Primary Motor Cortex - controls speech muscles |
| What does the thalamus do? | Major relay station for sensory information before reaching the cerebral cortex |
| Functions of the hypothalamus | Controls temperature, hunger, thirst, endocrine system, ANS, and circadian rhythms |
| Peripheral Nervous System | See following slides |
| Which sensory receptors detect pain? | Nocireceptors - detect mechanical, thermal and chemical stimuli |
| Which sensory receptors detect body movement and position in space? | Proprioreceptors - found in muscles, tendons, and joints |
| Afferent vs efferent nerves | Afferent (Sensory) - carry information TO the CNS (i.e. pain, temperature, and touch) "afferent arrives"; Efferent (Motor) - carry commands FROM the CNS to muscles or glands "efferent exits" |
| Axons travel as tracts in CNS and nerves in PNS | CNS - bundles of axons are called tracts vs in PNS they are referred to as nerves |
| Stretch reflex | Prevents muscles from overstretching and helps maintain posture (i.e. patella (knee-jerk) reflex)); Process - 1. Muscle stretches, 2. Muscle spindle activated, 3. Sensory neuron -? spinal cord, 4. Motor neuron activated, and 5. Same muscle contracts |
| Withdrawal reflex | Protects the body from painful stimuli; Process - 1. Pain receptor activated, 2. Sensory neuron sends signal to spinal cord, 3. Interneurons activate flexor muscles, and 4. Limb withdraws from stimulus |
| Somatic vs autonomic reflex | Somatic Reflex - skeletal muscle that is usually voluntary (i.e. knee-jerk reflex); Autonomic Reflex - smooth and cardiac muscle, and is involuntary (i.e. blood pressure regulation) |
| Autonomic Nervous System | See following slides |
| Sympathetic NS | Fight or flight, vasodilation in skeletal muscle, vasoconstriction in digestive tract, and stimulated adrenal medulla to release epinephrine |
| Parasympathetic NS | Rest and digest, ganglia are in or near the effector organs, and vagus nerve will send signals for decreased heart rate |
| Neurotransmitters - Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine | Preganglionic - ACh for both sympathetic and parasympathetic; Postganglionic - Sympathetic mostly norepinephrine and parasympathetic uses ACh |
| Blood and Blood Vessels | See following slides |
| Action of hydrostatic vs oncotic pressure | Hydrostatic pressure - pushes fluid OUT of capillaries and promotes filtration; Oncotic pressure pulls fluid INTO capillaries and promotes reabsorption |
| Which plasma protein is the major contributor to oncotic pressure? | Albumin |
| How many O2 molecules are bound by one hemoglobin molecule? | One hemoglobin molecule binds to: four oxygen molecules |
| What do erythropoietin and thrombopoietin do? | EPO is produced by kidneys and stimulated red blood cell production in bone marrow; Thrombopoietin produced mainly by the liver stimulates platelet production |
| Blood volume in health male adult? | 5-6L |
| Which WBC produce antibodies? | B lymphocytes |
| Cardiovascular System | See following slides |
| What causes the first heart sound (S1 or "lub")? | Caused by closure of the atrioventricular (AV) valve (i.e. mitral and tricuspid valves). Occurs at the beginning of ventricular systole |
| All heart valves are closed during isovolumetric contraction, but AV and SL valves are never simultaneously open | During Isovolumetric Contaction: AV valves are closed, semilunar valves are closed, ventricles are contracting, ventricular pressure is increasing, and no blood enters or leaves the ventricles |
| Define cardiac output | The volume of blood pumped by one ventricle each minute (CO=HRxSV). Normal resting cardiac output is ~5l/min |
| EDV=SV+ESV | End-Diastolic Volume = Stroke Volume + End-Systolic Volume |
| Pulmonary circulation is low pressure/low resistance circuit | Move blood between the heart and lungs for gas exchange |
| Sequence of electrical flow through the cardiac conduction system | SA Node -> AV Node -> AV Bundle (Bundle of His) -> R & L Bundle Branches -> Purkinje Fibers |
| Respiratory System | See following slides |
| Conducting Zone (tubes) vs Respiratory Zone (gas exchange) | Conducting Zone - moves, warms, humidifies, and filters air. Includes: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles; Respiratory Zone - site of gas exchange. Includes: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli |
| pCO2 (carbon dioxide) in systemic arterial blood is strongest influence on alveolar ventilation | Increased CO2 causes increased ventilation while decreased CO2 levels cause decreased ventilation |
| Air spaces in lungs are kept open by negative intrapleural pressure | Intrapleural pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure which caused the lungs to remain expanded |
| What does surfactant do? | Produced by type II alveolar cells and functions to reduce alveolar surface tension, prevents alveolar collapse (atelectasis), makes lungs easier to inflate, and increases lung compliance |
| What carries most O2 in the blood? | Oxyhemoglobin |
| What carries most CO2 in the blood? | Bicarbonate |
| Urinary System | See following slides |
| Definition of Nephron | The functional unit of the kidney; filters blood, reabsorbs needed substances, secretes waste, and produces urine |
| What increases GFR? | If the efferent arteriole constricts (while the afferent arteriole remains unchanged or dilated), glomerular pressure increases as well as GFR |
| Juxtaglomerular Cells (JGC) | Release renin and other vasoactive chemicals |
| Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) | Reabsorbs about 65% of the filtrate including water, sodium, chloride, potassium, glucose, and amino acids |
| Medullary Osmotic Gradient | Created mainly by sodium chloride and urea. Allows the kidneys to produce concentrated urine |
| ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) | Released when dehydrated, plasma osmolarity increases, or blood volume decreases |
| Fluid & Acid-Base Balance | See following slides |
| Sources of water loss from the body | Water leaves the body through: urine (largest source), sweat, feces, and exhaled air |
| ADH has direct effects on water reabsorption (in collecting ducts), blood pressure, and blood osmolarity | ADH directly affects the collecting ducts by: increasing water reabsorption, increasing blood volume, increasing blood pressure, decreasing plasma osmolarity, and decreasing urine output |
| Which compartment has the largest percentage of body water? | Intracellular fluid ~2/3 of total body water; extracellular about 1/3 |
| Isotonic vs. Hypotonic vs Hypertonic | Isotonic = equal solute concentration both inside/outside cell, Hypotonic = lower solute concentration outside the cell so water enters (swells/burst); Hypertonic, higher solute concentration outside the cell so water leaves (shrinks) |
| Acidosis | Caused by increased H+ ions that create a blood pH below 7.35 |
| Major Cations | ICF - K+; ECF - Na+ |
| Digestive System | See following slides |
| Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic NS effects on digestive system | Sympathetic - Decreases GI motility, secretions, and constricts GI blood vessels (fight or flight); Parasympathetic - increases digestion, motility, secretions, and relaxes GI sphincters (rest and digest) |
| Digestive Activity | Controlled by receptors in the walls of the GI tract |
| Actions of CCK | Released from the duodenum and functions to contract the gallbladder and slow gastric emptying |
| Which sphincter does not control passage of food through GI tract? | The hepatopancreatic sphincter which helps regulate the flow of bile and pancreatic juice |
| Segmentation | Aids in propulsion and mechanical digestion in small intestine by mixing chyme with digestive juices |
| Jejunum | Site where most absorption of nutrients and water occurs |
| Endocrine System | See following slides |
| What hormone causes release of FSH and LH? | Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) - enacted by the hypothalamus to anterior pituitary gland that releases FSH and LH |
| What hormone stimulates uterine contractions and milk let-down? | Oxytocin - produced in hypothalamus and releases by the posterior pituitary gland |
| What hormone stimulates milk production in mammary glands? | Prolactin - released by the anterior pituitary |
| What hormone stimulates cortisol release from adrenal cortex? | Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) - enacted by hypothalamus to anterior pituitary gland to adrenal cortex that releases cortisol |
| What hormone stimulates the release of T3 and T4? | Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - enacted by the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland to the thyroid gland which then releases T3 and T4 |
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troyfulls1
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