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Fund. of Biodiv.
1st yr biology, population/ecosystem ecology (no math), mechanisms of evolution
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What differentiates the disciplines of ecology, biology, and natural history? | Biology is the SCIENTIFIC study of life. Ecology is the scientific study of relationships between biotic and abiotic elements of a system. Natural history is observational, non-scientific, and the predecessor to ecology. |
| Which is the basis of scientific study: inductive or deductive reasoning? | Deductive. Scientific method = Hypothetico-deductive method |
| Outline the steps of the scientific method. | 1. Ask a question/make an observation. 2. Create a hypothesis. 3. Make predictions to test hypothesis. 4. Devise a test for your predictions. 5. Collect data. 6. Analyze data. 7. Interpret data. |
| Differentiate between reproducibility & repeatability. | Repeatable: reliability of the experimental process/setup/technique (can the same person get the same results). Reproducible: whether the results are valid (same results can be obtained from different researcher following same protocol) |
| What is p-value and the null hypothesis? | p-value: probability that an observation is due to chance (p < 0.05 = not due to chance ie reject null hypothesis). Null hyp: the assumption that there is no relationship/phenomenon occurring and observations are essentially random |
| Name the levels of organization in ecology. | Biosphere > region/biome/landscape > ecosystem > community > population > individual |
| Name the levels of biodiversity. | Ecosystem, species, genetic |
| What is a population? What are the four main ways/reasons one may change in size? | Pop: collection of individuals of the same spp. May change in size due to births +, deaths -, immigration +, emigration - |
| What is distribution? What limits distribution? | Distribution of a spp. is the geographical space they actually inhabit (vs range: the whole theoretical space they could). Limited by geo/biotic barriers and unfavorable environment. |
| Describe population dispersion. | The local density of the individuals; the general pattern of how they are arranged in space. Uniform (territorial spp), clumped (social spp), random (wind dispersed seeds) |
| Ecological observations, distribution, and density are sensitive to _____. | Scale. |
| What are the 2 basic metapopulation models? How does genetics help in defining metapopulations? | Classic Island Model: multiple islands of sub-populations linked through movement; Mainland-island model: a larger source population feeds and is linked to smaller "sink" populations. Genetics can reveal the degree of interbreeding between subpopulations. |
| Describe 2 methods of estimating abundance. When is it more appropriate to use one over the other? | Quadrat: randomly placed squares, best for sessile organisms. Mark-recapture: catch as many as you can, mark em, let em go, see how many you can catch again; best for open spaces individuals move around in |
| Describe the assumptions of mark-recapture methods. | 1. pop size has stayed the same over sampling period 2. all individuals have equal chance of being captured 3. sufficient time has passed to allow marked and unmarked to mix 4. marks are not lost over time. |
| Distinguish between the three basic growth models. | Geometric: constant linear growth; exponential (models same as geometric): constant growth at increasing rate; logistic: S-curve model limited by carrying capacity (density-dependent!) |
| A closed population reaches equilibrium when _____ ____ _____ _____ ____. | birth rate equals death rate. |
| Distinguish between inter- and intra-specific competition. | Inter: between species Intra: within a spp |
| Differentiate between exploitative, interference, and apparent competition. | Ex: resource use, depletion or occupation (indirect) Int: direct contest App: indirect competition due to shared predator |
| What is competitive exclusion principle and why does it result in niche partitioning? | Principle: complete competitors cannot coexist; if there is no differentiation/partitioning, one spp will exclude the other. Partitioning includes occupying different spaces/times or foraging differently |
| Differentiate between the fundamental and the realized niche. | Fund: the full range of abiotic conditions a spp COULD occupy Real: the true set of conditions occupied when considering biotic interactions |
| List the stages in the predation sequence. | Search -> encounter -> detection -> attack -> pursue/subdue -> consume/digest -> (repeat) |
| Differentiate between numerical and functional response models. How do they relate to predation rate? | Num: predator pop growth model, based on changes in prey density (demographic (birth/death) or aggregational behaviour) Func: model of consumption per predator, usually hyperbolic, governed by attack rate (encounter) and handling time (subdue & consume) |
| How do predators affect prey non-consumptively? | Effects of predators on prey that do not involve eating: maternal effects (detrimental effects of predator stress ie fewer and smaller offspring) |
| Define the co-evolutionary arms race. How does it relate to the life-dinner principle? | Prey defenses (ie toxins) and predator offenses (ie toxin tolerance) will chase each other: natural selection promotes toxin to get stronger, just as it facilitates tolerance to get stronger. Principle: one runs harder for their life than their dinner |
| What does the Lotka-Volterra model predict? Why is it unrealistic? | Predator abundance lags behind prey. Unrealistic assumptions: exponential prey growth, prey growth independent of competitors, prey consumed proportionally across all densities, pred growth limited only by prey abundance, pred death rate constant |
| What is delayed density-dependence? | The abundance of predators does not immediately increase following a prey population boom but is delayed (a couple years). When modelling mortality x density, an anti-clockwise spiral is produced |
| Simpson's vs Shannon-Weiner vs Pielou's J (measures of diversity) | Simpson: richness and relative abundance, min=1, max=spp richness Shannon: " " " ", min=0, max=e^spp richness Pielou: evenness using Shannon's diversity, min=0, max=1 |
| Distinguish interdependent vs independent communities. | Inter: spp depend on each other to survive Ind: coexistence due to similar adaptations and requirements but do not require each other |
| Distinguish between top-down and bottom-up control. | Top: community organization governed by predation Bottom: community organization governed by nutrients (prey regulates predator abundance) |
| Define keystone, foundation, and ecosystem engineer species. | Keystone: disproportionately impactful to environment by biomass, removal causes system collapse Foundation: physically structure the ecosystem, numerically dominant Engineer: physically modify env to create different habitats |
| What is a trophic cascade? | The wave of change experienced by a community (more than one link of a food web) once an important spp experiences a change ie wolves of Yellowstone (can be top down or bottom up) |
| Differentiate between net and gross primary productivity. | Gross: all of the energy absorbed by producers Net: the energy absorbed by producers that is incorporated into biomass (ie available to be passed to primary consumers). NPP = GPP - respiration. |
| Define ecological succession (primary and secondary). | The gradual predictable change in communities following a disturbance. Primary: from rock (ie hardened volcanic material, exposed glacier trail) Secondary: disturbance in established ecosystem (ie logging, forest fire) |
| Distinguish between the factors governing productivity in aquatic vs terrestrial ecosystems. | Terrestrial systems limited by temperature, moisture, soil fertility Aquatic systems limited by nutrient availability. Different size of producers in either system results in most terrestrial biomass in producers and most aquatic biomass in consumers. |
| Describe the role of decomposition and how it relates to the carbon cycle. | Decomposers are responsible for breaking down organic matter and returning it to the soil. Without detritivores, dead material would build up and nutrients would remain locked in the organic (carbon-containing) chemical bonds. |
| Outline the general water cycle. | Reservoirs (lakes, ocean) heated by sun -> evaporation to enter atm -> condense to cloud -> return to earth as precipitation. Stored in organism cells, glaciers; inaccessible as saltwater |
| Outline the general Phosphorus cycle. | Needed for nucleic acids. Weathering of rocks releases -> plants uptake -> consumers eat -> consumers die and decomposers return phosphate to substrate. Also runs off land to feed into aquatic envs |
| Outline the general Nitrogen cycle. | Amino/nucleic acids. N in atm -> fixation by soil microbes -> ammonification -> nitrification (nitrate preferred N form) -> use by plants -> consumers -> decomposition -> denitrification returns nitrate to N gas. Also fertilizer, lightning, fossil fuels |
| Outline the general Carbon cycle. | In atm bio hydro & geo-spheres. Photosynthesis <-> respiration -> incorporation into biomass (carbon sinks) -> decomposition ; assimilation into carbonate ; accumulation + time = sedimentary rock, fossil/fuels ; combustion (forest, volcano, human) |
| Identify the four main nutrient pools in terrestrial ecosystems. | Within organic material, the available-nutrient-pool in soil/water, hard inorganic material (inaccessible in rock), atmospheric inorganic (gaseous state elements) |
| Describe accepted evidence for evolution. | Structural: homology, vestigial structures, fossil record Genetics: changes in allele frequency, DNA relatedness, sequence homology Direct observation of change in a population over time (artificial selection) |
| Identify 2 sources of genetic variation | Mutations and recombination. Mutations are the ultimate source of variation. Recombination is more important for variation in sexually reproducing spp |
| What is Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and how is it employed to test evolution? | HW: a pop that is stable and not evolving, the null hyp of evolution. the equations solve for the hypothetical allele freq if evolution wasn't occurring, compare observed and expected |
| Define alleles, genotype, and phenotype. | Allele: the different forms of a gene. Genotype: alleles (genetics) an individual has Phenotype: how the alleles of an individual present morphologically. Environment also affects phenotype |
| What makes evolution possible? | A trait must be variable and heritable for evolution to be possible. |
| What are the 4 mechanisms of evolution? | Natural selection (adaptive, inter or intra-sexual), genetic drift (strongest w small pop), gene flow (migration/dispersal), mutation |
| Describe directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection. | Dir: favors one extreme of phenotypic range Dis: favors both extremes Stab: favors intermediate and acts against extremes |
| Define the Biological Species Concept. | A species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups (must result in viable offspring). Doesn't work for fossils or asexual organisms. |
| Identify when to use non-BSC spp concepts (3). | Morphospecies: morphological differences (fossils, specimens) Ecological: group that occupies the same niche (microbes, strong niche specialization ie tropics) Phylogenetic: the smallest monophyletic group (asexual spp, microbes, cryptic spp) |
| Differentiate between pre- and post-zygotic reproductive barriers and provide examples of each. | Pre: isolation before fertilization, geographic/temporal/behavioral/gametic isolation or mechanical incompatibility Post: zygote forms but barrier later on ie incorrect development, sterility, or breakdown (only first generation is viable and fertile) |
| What is adaptive radiation? | Sudden period of rapid diversification resulting in accelerated adaptation and speciation. |
| What is co-speciation? | When a host and parasite pair evolve and speciate alongside each other. |
| What are the types of allopatric speciation? What is sympatric speciation? | Allo: speciation due to isolation; vicariance=pop is divides; dispersal=some of pop moves to a new habitat. Sym: speciation without isolation; disruptive natural selective must be stronger than gene flow |
| What is a mechanism that leads to instantaneous speciation? (important for plants) | Polyploid speciation: sympatric; when an individual is born with extra sets of chromosomes (different ploidy than parents), they are no longer able to mate with individuals of normal ploidy therefore they became reproductively isolated in a single gen |
| Why is the fossil record imperfect? | Remains are only preserved under specific conditions and hard parts more likely to survive (bones, shells). |
| Describe 4 insights fossils can provide. | Provide evidence for phylogenetic hypotheses, allow for calibration of phylogenies in time, provide great detail of extinct animals, place large evolutionary events into the context of Earth's history |
| Why are mass extinctions important for biodiversity? | Removal of a large proportion of organisms allows the survivors to occupy new niches; it points biodiversity down a different path, and life continuously accumulates more diversity regardless |
| Distinguish between monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic groups. | Mono: the most correct, includes all descendants of a common ancestor Para: common ancestor and some not all descendants Poly: the most incorrect, does not include common ancestor |
| What makes a synapomorphy-based phylogeny most parsimonious? | The most parsimonious tree minimizes the total number of independent origins of character states therefore has the fewest number of changes |
| What are the three domains of life? Which are most closely related? | Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya. Archaea and Eukarya are more closely related than Bacteria. |
| What is horizontal gene transfer? | An ability some microbes have that allow the exchange of genetic material between unrelated cells. Complicates reconstruction of microbial phylogeny because genes could be picked up from anywhere. |
| Describe endosymbiosis and the organelles that experienced it. What is the evidence? | Endosymbiotic theory: mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from simple microbes engulfing others and using their machinery for their own benefit ie photosynthesis. Evidence: double membranes, bacterial replication, and their own DNA |
| What is the alternation of generations in (plant) life cycles? | The cycle between sporophyte and gametophyte. Allows dispersal through spores but maintains diversity through sexual reproduction, also separates priorities of growth and reproduction. Foundation of plant diversity. |
| Distinguish between sporophyte and gametophyte. | Sporo: produced after fusion of gametes thus 2n, produces 1n spores (meiosis) Gameto: 1n structure produced from spores and produces 1n gametes (mitosis) |
| What are the four general plant clades and their synapomorphy/major transition? | Bryophytes: allowed movement to land, alt of gen, short w simple roots Monilophytes: greater tissue specialization vasculature allow greater size Gymnosperms: air-dispersal, pollen and seeds, sporophyte is dominant Angiosperms: flowers and fruit |
| Briefly describe angiosperm diversity and co-evolution. | Monocots: grasses, 25% spp Dicots: most typical flowers, 75% spp -> Fruit and flowers can become very specific to a certain spp, selecting for lures for that spp (pollinators: scent, shape, colour). Also adaptive radiation of chemical defenses. |
| Describe four organs of plants and how plant form relates to function. | Reproductive (fruit/flower/seed): adaptations to attract pollinators and disperse seeds. Leaf: main site of photosynthesis, large area to absorb light Stem: stability, elevation (competition), xylem&phloem Roots: anchor, absorb resources |
| What are some features of pollination syndrome? | Flower traits reflect pollination method: tubular with lots of nectar for butterflies and birds, large anthers and no nectar for wind, lots of sticky scented pollen for bees, white and night-blooming for bats, red/purple/brown and pungent for flies |
| What are different mechanisms of seed dispersal? | Wind, animal (barbed or nutritious), mechanical ie when explosive force when pod dries. |
| Discuss the parts of a leaf that facilitate photosynthesis (sun, water, carbon dioxide). | Cuticle: reduce water loss Epidermis: location of stomata, also protects leaf Mesophyll: actual site of process, airy to allow gas exchange Stomata: pores to allow gas (CO2) to enter. opened and closed by guard cells. |
| What defines an animal? | Persistent multicellularity (cell differentiation), form a gastrula after zygote, and synthesize collagen. |
| How did symmetry change animals (Bilaterians)? | Bilateral symmetry allows movement in a specialized horizontal direction. Also often allows specialized organs (triploblastic; mesoderm allows development of internal organs). |
| What are the 3 major phyla of Deuterostomes? | Hemichordata (acorn worms), Echinodermata (sea urchins, stars, cucumbers), Chordata (vertebrates). Protostomes include ecdysozoans and lophotrochozoans. |
| List 8 major transitions in vertebrate (Chordate) phylogeny. | 1. cranium 2. vertebrae 3. jaw 4. lobed fins (predecessor to limbs; diverse fish niches due to moveable jaw elements, swim bladder, kidneys) 5. lungs 6. walking legs 7. amniotic egg 8. mammary glands & hair |
| What are amniotic eggs and why are they advantageous? | Shell resists desiccation (but requires internal fertilization), four layers of membrane that manage movement of gas, waste. Membranes retained in live births to protect inside womb. Allows animals to live on dry and reproduce on land. |
| Distinguish between the 3 main mammal groups. | Mammals have hair and mammary glands. Main groups: monotremes (lay eggs), marsupials (drink milk from inside pouch), placental mammals (internal pregnancy and live birth) |
| List the five key animal diversification periods in Earth's history. | Cambrian explosion: most bilateral body plans appear (541-485Ma) Ordovician: skeleton more common in ocean, land plants appear Silurian: animals colonize land Devonian: radiation of insects, tetrapods appear Early Mesozoic: dinos and mammals (251-65) |
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camiebio
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