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bcor 2100 final
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| deduction | going from the broad to the specific |
| induction | going from specific to general |
| paradigm | a view of nature that implicitly defines legitimate questions and problems, aka problem solving |
| Bacon's inductive method | observation, always changing hypotheses, novel predictions, new observations, accumulation and consensus |
| Popper's hypothetico deductive method | observation, making many differing hypotheses, focus on refuting H to find one that cannot be refuted, elimination and controversy |
| Null hypothesis (Ho) | no biological mechanism other than sampling error or other sources of unspecified variation |
| type I statistical error | incorrectly rejecting a true Ho (false positive) |
| type II statistical error | incorrectly accepting a false Ho (false negative) |
| statistical p | the probability of making a type I error by rejecting a true Ho |
| population | a group of interbreeding individuals of the same species that live in the same place |
| density independent | birth and death rates are unaffected by increasing N |
| density dependent | birth rates decrease while death rates increase with increasing N |
| semelparous | big bang reproduction, all reproduction occurs in one single age class |
| iteroparous | repeated reproduction in at least two age classes |
| bx | birth schedule, the average number of births per female from age x to age x+1 |
| lx | survivorship schedule, probability of surviving from birth to age x |
| gx | age specific probability of survival |
| Ro | net reproductive rate, number of daughters born in next generation divided by the number of daughters born this generation |
| G | generation time, average age of parents of a cohort |
| trade-offs | where organisms allot their time and energy, growth reproduction or survivorship |
| type I survivorship | good juvenile survivorship, poor adult survivorship, seen in vertebrates with parental care like humans |
| type II survivorship | equiprobable odds of surviving as juvenile or adult |
| type III survivorship | poor juvenile survivorship, good adult survivorship, seen in many plants and insects |
| r-selection | low density, weak competition ability of offspring, fast development, small body size, early semelparous reproduction, type III survival curve, large r |
| k-selection | high density, strong competition ability of offspring, slow development, large body size, late iteroparous reproduction, type I survivorship curve, small r |
| exploitation competition | indirect, shared resources, think of sharing a milkshake w two straws |
| interference competition | direct, behavior and territoriality, affects exploitation efficiency of competitor |
| pre-emptive competition | competition for space, blend of exploitation and interference competition. |
| alpha | the effect of N2 on population growth rate of N1, measured in units of N1 |
| beta | the effect of N1 on population growth rate of N2, measured in units of N2 |
| isocline | a combination of abundance of N1 and N2 such that dN/dt = 0 |
| k | carrying capacity |
| case 1 | N1 species isocline above N2, N1 wins in competition |
| case 2 | N2 species isocline above N1, N2 wins in competition |
| case 3 | interspecific competition weaker than intraspecific competition, stable equilibrium reached |
| case 4 | unstable equilibrium |
| overyielding | an equilibrium point above a yield curve results, should grow populations together |
| ecological niche (Hutchinson's definition) | an n-defined hypervolume that defines a set of conditions for which dN/dt > 0 |
| fundamental niche | species living alone in an environment |
| realized niche | species in presence of other species, smaller than fundamental niche |
| character displacement | divergence in body size or morphology of competitors living in sympatry |
| sympatry | living together |
| allopatry | living separately |
| ecological assortment | extinctions lead to the separation of species alone nice axes |
| LV predator/prey alpha | capture efficiency, how efficiently P kills V |
| LV predator/prey beta | conversion efficiency, the ability of P to convert V into offspring of P |
| period of cycle | length between two peaks or pits of a graph, 2 pi / root rq |
| amplitude of cycle | difference between peak and pit of cycle, dependent on initial population sizes |
| competition models | case 1, 2, 3 are stable equilibrium, case 4 unstable |
| predator-prey model | neutral equilibrium, stays same unless new cycle |
| escape in time | V and P have different schedules, so less chance of interacting |
| escape in size | P unable to eat all spectrum of V over time |
| escape in space | 2 ways; permanent refuge or permanent spacial refuge |
| permanent refuge | safe place V goes that is inaccessible to P, abiotic or biotic limitations |
| permanent spacial refuge | ephemeral escape in space (transient), if migration possible then coexistence should occur at regional scale |
| metapopulation | a set of habitat patches connected by migration |
| escape in numbers | so much prey, predators unable to eliminate them all |
| non-consumptive effects | triggered by presence of predator, changes in migration, reduced feeding and copulation |
| "landscape of fear" | prey always evaluating surroundings and making changes |
| "landscape of disgust" | prey stay away from gross and parasitic things |
| comparative method | idea that we should look at ecological processes that are related, such as phylogenies |
| evolutionary mechanisms to species coexisting in tropics | small populations lead to rapid evolution (genetic drift), warmer temps lead to high metabolic rates and shorter generation times, increased UV exposure leads to higher mutation rates |
| there are more species in | low latitudes, low to mid elevation, shallower aquatic environments, mainland areas |
| H1- habitat diversity hypothesis | more habitats --> more different niches --> more species coexistence |
| H2- productivity hypothesis | increase in biomass and species richness at bottom of food chain increases richness at higher trophic levels (bottom up control) |
| H3- keystone predator hypothesis | the presence of a keystone predator keeps lower trophic level populations in check (top down control) |
| keystone predator | species that increase prey species diversity by preferentially eating the competitive dominant |
| keystone species | a species whose presence or absence leads to cascading effects |
| trophic cascade | reciprocal changes in abundance at different trophic levels with the addition or removal of a top predator |
| "the world is green" | too many predators for herbivores to eat all of the plants |
| H4- niche adjustment hypothesis | more theoretic, in resource gradient must expand resource axis, increase resource specialization, increase tolerance of overlap |
| H5- intermediate disturbance hypothesis | the idea that physically removing species from communities will increase species richness, requires competition-colonization tradeoffs |
| non-equilibrium hypothesis of species diversity | as colonizing ability decreases, competitive ability increases |
| hypotheses for species diversity | habitat diversity, bottom up control, top down control, niche adjustment, intermediate disturbance, larger area --> more species |
| islands good model systems because | discrete, simplified communities, major evolutionary change patterns |
| Darlington's rule | for oceanic islands, each 10x increase in island area leads to a doubling of species richness. S=cA^z |
| mechanistic hypotheses for species area relationships | random sampling, habitat diversity, equilibrium theory of island biogeography |
| random sampling hypothesis | the number of individuals that accumulate on an island is proportional to island area (density of individual is constant) |
| habitat diversity hypothesis | large areas --> more habitats --> more niche spaces --> more species |
| equilibrium theory of island biogeography | MacArthur-Wilson model, dS/dt= I - E, explains how the number of species on an island is a dynamic balance between the rate of new colonization and the rate of existing species extinction |
| evolution | the change in allele frequencies of a population through time |
| gene | a section of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a particular trait |
| locus | location of gene on a chromosome or DNA sequence |
| allele | one of two or more alternate states for a single gene, each individual has 2 alleles for a trait, often multiple alleles for a single gene in a population |
| genotype | alleles for a gene |
| phenotype | expression of the trait in an organism |
| homozygous | 2 identical alleles of a gene |
| heterozygous | 2 different alleles for a gene |
| dominant allele | expressed with one copy, seen in both hetero and homozygous individuals |
| recessive allele | expressed with 2 copies, homozygous only |
| pleitropy | one gene affects multiple traits |
| epistasis | one gene products affect others |
| polygenic traits | multiple genes affect one trait |
| Hardy Weinburg model | expected allelic and genotype frequencies arising only from random mating |
| classical model of heterozygosity | predicts very low heterozygosity |
| balance model of heterozygosity | low heterozygosity but some benefits |
| heterosis | higher fitness for heterozygous individuals |
| mutation | a biochemical event where an allele mutates to another, can occur in mitosis or meiosis |
| random mating | mate choice is independent of genotype or phenotype |
| positive assortative mating | occurs with more frequent matings between similar phenotypes |
| negative assortative mating | less frequent mating between similar phenotypes |
| inbreeding | more frequent matings between related individuals |
| costs of inbreeding | more expression of deleterious recessive alleles, loss of heterozygosity |
| benefits of inbreeding | co-adapted gene complex, aka winning combination of alleles in a particular environment, needs constant environment and limited dispersal |
| genetic drift | changes in allele frequencies due to the random segregation of alleles in small populations |
| effective population size | the equivalent number of individuals in a truly randomly mating population |
| founder effect | populations colonized by only a few individuals |
| bottleneck effect | populations temporarily shrink to a small size |
| natural selection | differential survival and/or reproduction of individuals with heritable traits |
| selection coefficient | a measure of selection against a genotype. S=1-w |
| synapomorphy | a shared derived character, reflects monophyletic groups and associated with modern species |
| autamorphy | unique derived character, associated with a single modern species, useful for defining species, phylogenetically uninformative |
| plesiomorphy | shared primitive character, evolved before deepest split in the tree, shared by all modern species, phylogenetically uninformative |
| homoplasy | independent derived character, occurs in two or more species that do not share a recent common ancestor, independent evolution, may reflect convergence due to common environments |
| allopatric speciation | species A is widespread, formation of a geographic barrier to dispersal, species separated by new barrier |
| peripheral isolate speciation | widespread species with preexisting barrier, differentiation of isolated population before additional dispersal |
| sympatric speciation | widespread species, subgroup of population becomes reproductively isolated by a major mutation, polyploidy, or habitat differentiation and strong disruptive selection |
| sex | a recombination of genetic material of 2 individuals through meiosis and fertilization |
| disadvantages of sexual reproduction | energy and time investment, exposure to predators or microparasites, 2N --> N |
| advantages of sexual reproduction | DNA repair easier with two copies of alleles, avoidance of Muller's ratchet (deletarious mutations accumulate in asexual lineages), co evolutionary arms race between hosts and microparasites, offspring genetically differ from parents |
| male mating strategies | maximize number of mates, larger and brightly colored bodies, presenting females with gifts or dances |
| sexual selection | selection to maximize number of matings |
| female mating strategies | maximize quality of mates, choose high fitness mates |
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sadiejude
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