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ES Regents Vocab
Vocabulary terms for the ES Regents exam 2025
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Abrasion | The act of rock particles scraping or wearing away against other rock. |
| Absolute Dating | Using radioactive decay to determine the exact age of a rock, fossil, or event. |
| Agents of Erosion | Forces that are set in motion by gravity that causes sediments to move. |
| Air Currents | The rising or sinking movement of air perpendicular to the ground. |
| Air Mass | Characteristics of the air identified by temperature and moisture. |
| Air Pressure | The force exerted on a unit of area by the air that is exerted equally in every direction. |
| Altitude | The angular distance measured above the horizon in degrees. |
| Anemometer | An instrument used to measure the speed of the wind. |
| Asthenosphere | A partially melted layer that allows for parts of the lithosphere to move. |
| Asteroid Belt | A region between Mars and Jupiter where most of the asteroids are found orbiting the Sun. |
| Astronomy | The study of Earth’s motions and celestial objects in outer space. |
| Atmosphere | Layer of gases that surround Earth or any other planet. |
| Azimuth | Angular distance along the horizon measured from due north. |
| Banding | Type of foliation where pressure separates minerals into alternating light and dark layers. |
| Barometer | An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. |
| Big Bang | Leading theory of the origin of the Universe as observed from the expanding Universe. |
| Bioclastic | Sedimentary rock type that forms from the remains of plants and animals. |
| Celestial Object | Natural objects that can be seen in the sky that is above Earth’s atmosphere. |
| Cementation | The act or process of holding sediment or pieces of rock together. |
| Chemical Weathering | The breakdown of rock through a change in mineral or chemical composition. |
| Circle | A perfect geometric figure with one center point. |
| Clastic | Sedimentary rock type that forms from the fragments or pieces of other rocks. |
| Cleavage | The tendency of a mineral to break along zones of weakness and form flat or parallel surfaces. |
| Climate | Overall view of a regions weather conditions over a long time span. |
| Climatology | The study of Earth’s weather variables and patterns over long periods of time. |
| Clinometer | An instrument that is used to measure an incline. |
| Cold Front | A boundary where more dense cold air advances under less dense warm air pushing it up. |
| Colloid | A small particle that remains suspended indefinitely. |
| Compaction | The consolidation of sediments resulting from the weight of overlying deposits. |
| Condensation | The process which atmospheric water vapor turns into precipitation [gas to a liquid]. |
| Contact Metamorphism | Localized metamorphism resulting from the heat of an igneous intrusion. |
| Continental Drift | The theory that Earth’s continents are moving. |
| Continental Glacier | Huge sheets of ice that cover entire land masses |
| Contour Index | Lines that are bolder and have an elevation labeled. |
| Contour Interval | The difference in elevation between two side by side contour lines. |
| Contour Line | Lines drawn on a map that connect equal points of elevation. |
| Convection | Driving force of plate movement. |
| Convergent Boundary | Boundary where two lithospheric plates are coming together. |
| Coordinate System | A system which uses one or more numbers to locate a position. |
| Coriolis Effect | The tendency of particles to be deflected from a straight line. |
| Correlation | The process of showing that rocks or geologic events from different places are similar in age. |
| Crescent Moon | Figure of the moon resembling a segment of a ring tapering to points at the ends. |
| Crystalline | A naturally occurring solid that is formed as and composed of crystals. |
| Cyclic Change | A repeating pattern that occurs over and over again. |
| Density | The degree of compactness of a substance which is the ratio of mass to its volume. |
| Dependent Variable | The variable that is measured and affected in an experiment. |
| Deposition | The process by which sediments are released from erosion. |
| Depression Contours | Contour lines marked with hachured lines that signify a depression. |
| Dewpoint | The temperature at which air must be cooled for water vapor to condense. |
| Direct Relationship | When the x-axis and y-axis increase. |
| Divergent Boundary | Boundary where two lithospheric plates are moving apart. |
| Drumlin | A low oval mound consisting of glacial till. |
| Earthquake | A natural shaking of the lithosphere caused by a release of energy stored in rocks. |
| Eccentricity | The degree of flatness or “ovalness” of an ellipse. |
| Ecology | The study of how living things interact with their environments. |
| Electromagnetic Energy | Energy that is radiated through space in the forms of transverse waves. |
| Element | A substances that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. |
| Elevation | The vertical distance or height above or below sea level. |
| Ellipse | Special geometric shape with two center points and is the oval shape of a planet’s orbits. |
| Eon | A longest division of geologic time that is further subdivided. |
| Epicenter | Location on the surface directly above the focus. |
| Epoch | A division of time that is a subdivision of a period that is based on fossil records. |
| Equator | The horizontal main reference line of latitude [0°]. |
| Era | A major division of time that is a subdivision of an eon and is based on fossil records. |
| Erosion | Process where rock fragments are transported. |
| Erratics | Transported rock fragments that are carried on top or within a from glacier and deposited. |
| Esker | A long winding ridge of gravel and sediment deposited by meltwater from a retreating glacier. |
| Evolution | The gradual development from a simple to a more complex form. |
| Extinction | The state or process of a species no longer existing. |
| Extrapolate | To infer or estimate by projecting known information. |
| Extrusive | A type of igneous rock that forms on the outside of Earth’s surface. |
| Fault | A break in rock layers that is marked by the relative displacement on either side. |
| Felsic | Light colored rocks that have a high aluminum [Al] content. |
| Field | A region with a measurable quantity at all locations. |
| Focal Depth | The depth at which an earthquake originates. |
| Foci | The two fixed center points of an ellipse. |
| Focus | The point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates. |
| Foliation | Type of texture when minerals rearrange in flat layers due to pressure. |
| Fossil | A remnant or trace of an organism of a past geologic age. |
| Fracture | A texture that causes minerals to break irregularly or unevenly. |
| Frost Action | Weathering process caused by cycles of freezing and thawing of water in rock openings. |
| Full Moon | The phase of the moon in which its whole disk is illuminated. |
| Galaxy | A collection of billions of stars and various amounts of gas held together by gravity. |
| Geocentric Universe | The idea that Earth was at the center of the solar system. |
| Geology | The study of the rocky portion of Earth. |
| Geographic Poles | Two points on the surface of a rotating planet where the axis of rotation meets the surface. |
| Glacial Grooves | Parallel scratches from sediment embedded under glaciers. |
| Glacier | A naturally formed mass of ice and snow that moves downhill under the force of gravity. |
| Gibbous Moon | Any moon that appears more than half lighted but less than full. |
| Glossopteris | A tree fossil that is found in South American and Africa, India and Antarctica. |
| Gradient | A slope that is calculated by dividing the change in field value divided by the distance. |
| Greenhouse Effect | The trapping of the sun's heat energy in a planet's lower atmosphere. |
| Half-life | The time required for half of a radioactive product to decay to a stable product. |
| Hardness | The resistance to a mineral being scratched to other minerals or object. |
| Heliocentric Model | A model of the solar system where the Sun is at the center. |
| High Pressure | Fair weather with wind patterns that are outward and clockwise. |
| Horizon | The edge of the visible portion of the celestial sphere. |
| Horizontal Sorting | Sorting from a decrease in stream velocity where particles are deposited from largest to smallest. |
| H-R Diagram | A chart used to classify stars according to their luminosity, mass, color and temperature. |
| Hurricane | A low pressure tropical storm that reaches winds above 74 mph. |
| Hydrology | The study of Earth’s fresh water system in relation to land. |
| Hydrosphere | A layer of Earth above the lithosphere that is in the liquid phase. |
| Igneous Rock | Rock type that forms when molten material solidifies. |
| Independent Variable | The variable that stands alone and isn’t changed by other factors. |
| Index Fossil | Fossil used to define and identify geologic periods. |
| Infiltration | The process which water penetrates into soil or rock. |
| Inner Core | The solid inner most zone of Earth’s core composed of iron [Fe] and nickel [Ni]. |
| Insolation | Term to describe incoming solar radiation from the Sun [sunlight]. |
| Intrusion | Magma cools and solidifies before it reaches Earth’s surface. |
| Intrusive | Igneous rock that forms deep inside of Earth. |
| Inverse Relationship | When the x-axis increases and y-axis decreases |
| Island Arc | A curved belt of volcanic islands lying above a subduction zone. |
| Isobar | Lines that are drawn on a map that connect all equal points of air pressure. |
| Isoline | Lines that are drawn on a map that connect all equal points of data. |
| Isotherm | Lines that are drawn on a map that connect all equal points of temperature. |
| Isotope | Variations of an element that have the same atomic number but differing atomic masses. |
| Isohyet | Lines that are drawn on a map that connect all equal points of rainfall amounts. |
| Jovian Planet | The outer gaseous planet with larger diameters and lower densities. |
| Kettle Lake | Depression left in the ground that is filled with glacial melt water. |
| Landscape | A collection of landforms, such as mountains, hills, plains, and plateaus |
| Latitude | Measuring lines, north or south, from the equator. |
| Lava | Molten rock that is outside the Earth. |
| Leeward | On or toward the side sheltered from the wind or toward which the wind is blowing. |
| Lightyear | A unit of astronomical distance equivalent to the distance that light travels in one year. |
| Lithification | The processes and methods in which sedimentary rocks form. |
| Lithosphere | Layer of Earth that is the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle. |
| Long Shore Current | Ocean current that flows parallel and close to the shore. |
| Lowlands | Landscape that is of lower elevation. |
| Low Pressure | Stormy weather with wind patterns that are inward and counterclockwise. |
| Luminosity | A measure on how bright a star is compared to our Sun. |
| Luster | The shine of an unweathered mineral or the way it looks in reflected light. |
| Mafic | Dark colored rocks that have a high iron [Fe] or magnesium (Mg) content. |
| Magma | Molten rock inside the Earth. |
| Main Sequence | Star classification not the H-R Diagram where most stars spend their stellar lives. |
| Major Axis | The longest straight lined distance across an ellipse. |
| Mantle | The thickest layer of Earth that makes up approximately 80% of Earth’s volume. |
| Map | A representation of an area of land or sea showing physical features. |
| Mass | The amount of matter in an object. |
| Mass Movement | The pulling of rock and sediment downhill by the force of gravity. |
| Meander | As a stream gets older it begins the shift its course in a series of bends. |
| Mesosaurus | A dinosaur fossil found in South American and South Africa. |
| Mercalli Scale | The effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface based on observations. |
| Metamorphic Rocks | Rocks that have been altered by an increases in temperature and pressure. |
| Meteorology | The study of weather and the atmosphere. |
| Mid-Ocean Ridge | Underwater mountain range created from a divergent plate boundary. |
| Mineral | Naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite structure where atoms are in a repeating pattern. |
| MOHO | A thin interface between the lithosphere from the asthenosphere. |
| Moon | A body that orbits a planet or asteroid as they orbit the Sun. |
| Mountain | A large natural elevation of the earth's surface. |
| New Moon | The phase of the moon when it is in conjunction with the sun and invisible from earth. |
| Nonfoliated | Type of metamorphic rock texture where there is no mineral alignment. |
| Nuclear Fusion | A reaction in which two atomic nuclei combine to form one atomic nuclei while releasing energy. |
| Oceanography | The branch of science that deals with the physical and biological properties of the ocean. |
| Original Horizontality | The idea that rocks are deposited in parallel layers to Earth’s surface. |
| Orographic Effect | The effect of rising air causing it to expand, cool and condense resulting in precipitation. |
| Outer Core | Liquid layer of Earth’s interior. |
| Outgassing | The outpouring of gases from the earth's interior that collected in the atmosphere. |
| Outwash Plain | Glacial feature of smaller sediment carried from the melting water of a retreating glacier. |
| Oxidation | When iron combines with oxygen to create rust. |
| P-wave | The fastest earthquake wave that travels through the earth [compressional]. |
| Pangaea | Name given to the super continent that existed 200 million years ago meaning “all Earth”. |
| Parent Rock | Preexisting rock from which rocks are formed. |
| Physical Weathering | The breakdown of rock into smaller pieces without chemical change. |
| Planet | A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star. |
| Plains | Landscape that is of lower elevation. |
| Plate | Section of the lithosphere that move due to convection currents. |
| Plate Tectonics | Study of the formation and movements of plates. |
| Plateau | Landscape that is of medium elevation and have a flat top. |
| Plutonic Rock | Igneous rocks that solidify slowly below the surface of Earth. |
| Polar Star | Star directly above the North or South Pole. |
| Prevailing Winds | Wind from the direction that is predominant at a particular place or season. |
| Prime Meridian | The main reference line of longitude [0°] that runs through Greenwich, England. |
| Prong | Landscape that is of lower elevation. |
| Radiative Balance | Balancing out of incoming and outgoing radiation. |
| Radioactive Decay | The disintegration of an isotope over time that enables dating. |
| Rainshadow Effect | Typically the leeward side of a mountain that experience minimal to no rainfall. |
| Rate of Change | The speed at which a variable changes over a specific period of time. |
| Recrystallization | The act of a rock crystallizing again. |
| Regional Metamorphism | Large scale metamorphism resulting from the heat and pressure below Earth’s surface.. |
| Relative Dating | The sequencing of rocks or events in relation to the ages of other rocks or events. |
| Relative Humidity | The amount of water vapor in the air at any given time. |
| Revolution | The motion of one body around another in an orbit. |
| Ring of Fire | Isolated belt around the Pacific Ocean where 90% of the world’s volcanoes exist. |
| Rock | A naturally formed solid that is part of Earth or any other celestial object. |
| Rotation | The movement of an object around a line of axis. |
| S-wave | The slower earthquake wave that travels through the earth (shear). |
| Saffir-Simpson Scale | A system for classifying hurricanes based on wind speed. |
| Sea-floor Spreading | The process where ocean floor is extended when two plates move apart. |
| Sedimentary Rock | Rock type from an accumulation of sediment from preexisting rocks and/or organic material. |
| Sediments | Smaller pieces of rock that have undergone weathering. |
| Seismogram | A record of the seismometer. |
| Seismograph | An instrument used to measure and record movements in the ground. |
| Sling Psychrometer | An instrument used to measure dew point and relative humidity. |
| Solar System | All the objects that orbit the Sun under its gravitational influence. |
| Soluble | The ability for a substance to be dissolved, especially in water. |
| Source Region | A location over which an air mass gets its characteristics. |
| Southwesterly Winds | Prevailing winds between 30° N and 60° N. |
| Stable Product | A nonradioactive element after decay. |
| Star | Large ball of gas held together by gravity that produces energy and shines. |
| Station Model | A symbol on a weather map that illustrates all the weather conditions at that location. |
| Storm Surge | A dome of water that moves onto shore near the landfall point of the hurricane. |
| Storm Track | The path that a hurricane takes. |
| Streak | The color of finely crushed powder when a mineral is dragged across a porcelain plate. |
| Stream | Running water that is confined to a channel. |
| Subduction | The process where one plate is pushed below another and consumed in the mantle. |
| Sunspot | A spot appearing on the Sun's surface, usually darker by contrast than its surroundings. |
| Superposition | The idea that the bottom layer is the oldest and each overlying layer gets progressively younger. |
| Suspension | When a particle remains floating. |
| Temperature | The heat energy present in the atmosphere. |
| Terminal Moraine | A mound of till deposited along the leading edge of a glacier |
| Terrestrial Planet | Solid surfaced planet with smaller diameters and higher densities. |
| Thermometer | An instrument used to measure temperature at a specific location. |
| Topographic Map | A model of an elevation field of Earth’s surface. |
| Topographic Profile | A side view of a geologic feature. |
| Tornado | A rotating column of whirling air with destructively high winds. |
| Trade Winds | Prevailing winds between 30° N and 0°. |
| Transform Boundary | Boundary where two lithospheric plates are sliding past one another. |
| Tributary | A smaller stream that feeds a larger stream or lake. |
| Tropical Depression | Low pressure that produces sustained circular winds below 39 mph. |
| Tropical Storm | Low pressure that produces sustained circular winds above 39 mph, but less than hurricane. |
| U-Shaped Valley | The result of glacial erosion on the sides of valley walls. |
| Unconformity | A break in the rock record or sequence that usually occurs from erosion. |
| Uniformitarianism | Idea that forces working on our planet today worked on our planet in the past in the same way. |
| Universe | All the space, matter, and energy in existence. |
| Unstable Product | A radioactive element. |
| V-Shaped Valley | Shape of valley walls from stream erosion. |
| Valley Glacier | Glaciers that form in high elevations in mountain valleys. |
| Vesicular | Texture that consists of gas pockets that give the appearance of having holes. |
| Volcanic Rock | Rock that formed on Earth’s surface. |
| Volcano | A vent in the crust of the earth from which molten material and steam is ejected from |
| Volume | The amount of space that an object occupies. |
| Waning Moon | When the moon decreases in size and becomes less brilliant. |
| Warm Front | A boundary where less dense warm air advances over top of more dense cold air. |
| Waxing Moon | When the moon increases in size and becomes more brilliant. |
| Weather | The present condition of the atmosphere with respect to changing weather variables. |
| Weather Vane | An instrument used to measure wind direction. |
| Weathering | The breakdown of rock at or near Earth’s surface. |
| Weight | The effect of gravity on weight. |
| Wind | The horizontal movement of air parallel to the surface. |
| Windward | The side or direction from which the wind is blowing |
| Zenith | The highest point on the celestial sphere. |
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