Vocabulary terms for the ES Regents exam 2025
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| Abrasion | The act of rock particles scraping or
wearing away against other rock.
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| Absolute Dating | Using radioactive decay to determine the
exact age of a rock, fossil, or event.
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| Agents of Erosion | Forces that are set in motion by gravity that
causes sediments to move.
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| Air Currents | The rising or sinking movement of air
perpendicular to the ground.
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| Air Mass | Characteristics of the air identified by
temperature and moisture.
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| Air Pressure | The force exerted on a unit of area by the air
that is exerted equally in every direction.
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| Altitude | The angular distance measured above the
horizon in degrees.
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| Anemometer | An instrument used to measure the speed
of the wind.
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| Asthenosphere | A partially melted layer that allows for parts
of the lithosphere to move.
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| Asteroid Belt | A region between Mars and Jupiter where most
of the asteroids are found orbiting the Sun.
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| Astronomy | The study of Earth’s motions and celestial
objects in outer space.
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| Atmosphere | Layer of gases that surround Earth or any other
planet.
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| Azimuth | Angular distance along the horizon measured
from due north.
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| Banding | Type of foliation where pressure separates
minerals into alternating light and dark layers.
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| Barometer | An instrument used to measure atmospheric
pressure.
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| Big Bang | Leading theory of the origin of the Universe as
observed from the expanding Universe.
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| Bioclastic | Sedimentary rock type that forms from the
remains of plants and animals.
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| Celestial Object | Natural objects that can be seen in the sky that
is above Earth’s atmosphere.
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| Cementation | The act or process of holding sediment or
pieces of rock together.
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| Chemical Weathering | The breakdown of rock through a change in
mineral or chemical composition.
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| Circle | A perfect geometric figure with one center point.
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| Clastic | Sedimentary rock type that forms from the
fragments or pieces of other rocks.
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| Cleavage | The tendency of a mineral to break along zones
of weakness and form flat or parallel surfaces.
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| Climate | Overall view of a regions weather conditions over
a long time span.
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| Climatology | The study of Earth’s weather variables and
patterns over long periods of time.
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| Clinometer | An instrument that is used to measure an incline.
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| Cold Front | A boundary where more dense cold air advances
under less dense warm air pushing it up.
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| Colloid | A small particle that remains suspended
indefinitely.
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| Compaction | The consolidation of sediments resulting from
the weight of overlying deposits.
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| Condensation | The process which atmospheric water vapor
turns into precipitation [gas to a liquid].
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| Contact Metamorphism | Localized metamorphism resulting from the heat
of an igneous intrusion.
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| Continental Drift | The theory that Earth’s continents are moving.
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| Continental Glacier | Huge sheets of ice that cover entire land
masses
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| Contour Index | Lines that are bolder and have an elevation
labeled.
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| Contour Interval | The difference in elevation between two side by
side contour lines.
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| Contour Line | Lines drawn on a map that connect equal points
of elevation.
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| Convection | Driving force of plate movement.
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| Convergent Boundary | Boundary where two lithospheric plates are
coming together.
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| Coordinate System | A system which uses one or more numbers to
locate a position.
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| Coriolis Effect | The tendency of particles to be deflected from a
straight line.
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| Correlation | The process of showing that rocks or geologic
events from different places are similar in age.
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| Crescent Moon | Figure of the moon resembling a segment of a
ring tapering to points at the ends.
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| Crystalline | A naturally occurring solid that is formed as
and composed of crystals.
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| Cyclic Change | A repeating pattern that occurs over and over
again.
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| Density | The degree of compactness of a substance
which is the ratio of mass to its volume.
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| Dependent Variable | The variable that is measured and affected
in an experiment.
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| Deposition | The process by which sediments are released
from erosion.
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| Depression Contours | Contour lines marked with hachured lines that
signify a depression.
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| Dewpoint | The temperature at which air must be cooled
for water vapor to condense.
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| Direct Relationship | When the x-axis and y-axis increase.
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| Divergent Boundary | Boundary where two lithospheric plates are
moving apart.
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| Drumlin | A low oval mound consisting of glacial till.
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| Earthquake | A natural shaking of the lithosphere caused by a
release of energy stored in rocks.
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| Eccentricity | The degree of flatness or “ovalness” of an
ellipse.
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| Ecology | The study of how living things interact with their
environments.
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| Electromagnetic Energy | Energy that is radiated through space in the
forms of transverse waves.
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| Element | A substances that cannot be separated into
simpler substances by chemical means.
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| Elevation | The vertical distance or height above or below
sea level.
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| Ellipse | Special geometric shape with two center points
and is the oval shape of a planet’s orbits.
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| Eon | A longest division of geologic time that is further
subdivided.
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| Epicenter | Location on the surface directly above the focus.
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| Epoch | A division of time that is a subdivision of a period
that is based on fossil records.
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| Equator | The horizontal main reference line of latitude [0°].
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| Era | A major division of time that is a subdivision of
an eon and is based on fossil records.
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| Erosion | Process where rock fragments are transported.
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| Erratics | Transported rock fragments that are carried on
top or within a from glacier and deposited.
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| Esker | A long winding ridge of gravel and sediment
deposited by meltwater from a retreating glacier.
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| Evolution | The gradual development from a simple to a
more complex form.
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| Extinction | The state or process of a species no longer
existing.
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| Extrapolate | To infer or estimate by projecting known
information.
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| Extrusive | A type of igneous rock that forms on the outside
of Earth’s surface.
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| Fault | A break in rock layers that is marked by the
relative displacement on either side.
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| Felsic | Light colored rocks that have a high aluminum
[Al] content.
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| Field | A region with a measurable quantity at all locations.
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| Focal Depth | The depth at which an earthquake originates.
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| Foci | The two fixed center points of an ellipse.
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| Focus | The point inside the Earth where the earthquake
originates.
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| Foliation | Type of texture when minerals rearrange in flat
layers due to pressure.
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| Fossil | A remnant or trace of an organism of a past
geologic age.
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| Fracture | A texture that causes minerals to break
irregularly or unevenly.
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| Frost Action | Weathering process caused by cycles of
freezing and thawing of water in rock openings.
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| Full Moon | The phase of the moon in which its whole disk is
illuminated.
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| Galaxy | A collection of billions of stars and various
amounts of gas held together by gravity.
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| Geocentric Universe | The idea that Earth was at the center of the solar
system.
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| Geology | The study of the rocky portion of Earth.
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| Geographic Poles | Two points on the surface of a rotating planet
where the axis of rotation meets the surface.
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| Glacial Grooves | Parallel scratches from sediment embedded
under glaciers.
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| Glacier | A naturally formed mass of ice and snow that
moves downhill under the force of gravity.
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| Gibbous Moon | Any moon that appears more than half
lighted but less than full.
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| Glossopteris | A tree fossil that is found in South American
and Africa, India and Antarctica.
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| Gradient | A slope that is calculated by dividing the
change in field value divided by the distance.
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| Greenhouse Effect | The trapping of the sun's heat energy in a
planet's lower atmosphere.
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| Half-life | The time required for half of a radioactive
product to decay to a stable product.
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| Hardness | The resistance to a mineral being scratched
to other minerals or object.
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| Heliocentric Model | A model of the solar system where the Sun
is at the center.
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| High Pressure | Fair weather with wind patterns that are
outward and clockwise.
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| Horizon | The edge of the visible portion of the
celestial sphere.
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| Horizontal Sorting | Sorting from a decrease in stream velocity where
particles are deposited from largest to smallest.
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| H-R Diagram | A chart used to classify stars according to their
luminosity, mass, color and temperature.
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| Hurricane | A low pressure tropical storm that reaches winds
above 74 mph.
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| Hydrology | The study of Earth’s fresh water system in
relation to land.
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| Hydrosphere | A layer of Earth above the lithosphere that is in
the liquid phase.
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| Igneous Rock | Rock type that forms when molten material
solidifies.
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| Independent Variable | The variable that stands alone and isn’t changed
by other factors.
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| Index Fossil | Fossil used to define and identify geologic
periods.
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| Infiltration | The process which water penetrates into
soil or rock.
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| Inner Core | The solid inner most zone of Earth’s core
composed of iron [Fe] and nickel [Ni].
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| Insolation | Term to describe incoming solar radiation from
the Sun [sunlight].
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| Intrusion | Magma cools and solidifies before it reaches
Earth’s surface.
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| Intrusive | Igneous rock that forms deep inside of Earth.
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| Inverse Relationship | When the x-axis increases and y-axis decreases
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| Island Arc | A curved belt of volcanic islands lying above a
subduction zone.
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| Isobar | Lines that are drawn on a map that connect
all equal points of air pressure.
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| Isoline | Lines that are drawn on a map that connect
all equal points of data.
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| Isotherm | Lines that are drawn on a map that connect
all equal points of temperature.
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| Isotope | Variations of an element that have the same
atomic number but differing atomic masses.
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| Isohyet | Lines that are drawn on a map that connect
all equal points of rainfall amounts.
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| Jovian Planet | The outer gaseous planet with larger
diameters and lower densities.
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| Kettle Lake | Depression left in the ground that is filled
with glacial melt water.
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| Landscape | A collection of landforms, such as mountains,
hills, plains, and plateaus
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| Latitude | Measuring lines, north or south, from the equator.
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| Lava | Molten rock that is outside the Earth.
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| Leeward | On or toward the side sheltered from the wind or
toward which the wind is blowing.
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| Lightyear | A unit of astronomical distance equivalent to the
distance that light travels in one year.
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| Lithification | The processes and methods in which
sedimentary rocks form.
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| Lithosphere | Layer of Earth that is the rigid outer part of the
earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle.
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| Long Shore Current | Ocean current that flows parallel and close to
the shore.
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| Lowlands | Landscape that is of lower elevation.
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| Low Pressure | Stormy weather with wind patterns that are
inward and counterclockwise.
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| Luminosity | A measure on how bright a star is compared to
our Sun.
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| Luster | The shine of an unweathered mineral or the way
it looks in reflected light.
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| Mafic | Dark colored rocks that have a high iron [Fe] or
magnesium (Mg) content.
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| Magma | Molten rock inside the Earth.
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| Main Sequence | Star classification not the H-R Diagram where
most stars spend their stellar lives.
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| Major Axis | The longest straight lined distance across an
ellipse.
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| Mantle | The thickest layer of Earth that makes up
approximately 80% of Earth’s volume.
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| Map | A representation of an area of land or sea
showing physical features.
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| Mass | The amount of matter in an object.
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| Mass Movement | The pulling of rock and sediment downhill by the
force of gravity.
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| Meander | As a stream gets older it begins the shift its
course in a series of bends.
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| Mesosaurus | A dinosaur fossil found in South American and
South Africa.
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| Mercalli Scale | The effect of an earthquake on the Earth's
surface based on observations.
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| Metamorphic Rocks | Rocks that have been altered by an increases in
temperature and pressure.
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| Meteorology | The study of weather and the atmosphere.
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| Mid-Ocean Ridge | Underwater mountain range created from a
divergent plate boundary.
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| Mineral | Naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite
structure where atoms are in a repeating pattern.
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| MOHO | A thin interface between the lithosphere from the
asthenosphere.
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| Moon | A body that orbits a planet or asteroid as they
orbit the Sun.
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| Mountain | A large natural elevation of the earth's surface.
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| New Moon | The phase of the moon when it is in conjunction
with the sun and invisible from earth.
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| Nonfoliated | Type of metamorphic rock texture where there is
no mineral alignment.
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| Nuclear Fusion | A reaction in which two atomic nuclei combine
to form one atomic nuclei while releasing energy.
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| Oceanography | The branch of science that deals with the
physical and biological properties of the ocean.
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| Original Horizontality | The idea that rocks are deposited in parallel
layers to Earth’s surface.
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| Orographic Effect | The effect of rising air causing it to expand, cool
and condense resulting in precipitation.
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| Outer Core | Liquid layer of Earth’s interior.
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| Outgassing | The outpouring of gases from the earth's interior
that collected in the atmosphere.
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| Outwash Plain | Glacial feature of smaller sediment carried from
the melting water of a retreating glacier.
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| Oxidation | When iron combines with oxygen to create rust.
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| P-wave | The fastest earthquake wave that travels through
the earth [compressional].
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| Pangaea | Name given to the super continent that existed
200 million years ago meaning “all Earth”.
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| Parent Rock | Preexisting rock from which rocks are formed.
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| Physical Weathering | The breakdown of rock into smaller pieces
without chemical change.
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| Planet | A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit
around a star.
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| Plains | Landscape that is of lower elevation.
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| Plate | Section of the lithosphere that move due to
convection currents.
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| Plate Tectonics | Study of the formation and movements of plates.
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| Plateau | Landscape that is of medium elevation and have
a flat top.
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| Plutonic Rock | Igneous rocks that solidify slowly below the
surface of Earth.
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| Polar Star | Star directly above the North or South Pole.
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| Prevailing Winds | Wind from the direction that is predominant at a
particular place or season.
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| Prime Meridian | The main reference line of longitude [0°] that
runs through Greenwich, England.
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| Prong | Landscape that is of lower elevation.
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| Radiative Balance | Balancing out of incoming and outgoing radiation.
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| Radioactive Decay | The disintegration of an isotope over time that
enables dating.
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| Rainshadow Effect | Typically the leeward side of a mountain that
experience minimal to no rainfall.
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| Rate of Change | The speed at which a variable changes over a
specific period of time.
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| Recrystallization | The act of a rock crystallizing again.
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| Regional Metamorphism | Large scale metamorphism resulting from the
heat and pressure below Earth’s surface..
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| Relative Dating | The sequencing of rocks or events in relation to
the ages of other rocks or events.
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| Relative Humidity | The amount of water vapor in the air at any
given time.
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| Revolution | The motion of one body around another in an
orbit.
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| Ring of Fire | Isolated belt around the Pacific Ocean where
90% of the world’s volcanoes exist.
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| Rock | A naturally formed solid that is part of Earth or
any other celestial object.
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| Rotation | The movement of an object around a line of axis.
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| S-wave | The slower earthquake wave that travels through
the earth (shear).
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| Saffir-Simpson Scale | A system for classifying hurricanes based on
wind speed.
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| Sea-floor Spreading | The process where ocean floor is extended
when two plates move apart.
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| Sedimentary Rock | Rock type from an accumulation of sediment
from preexisting rocks and/or organic material.
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| Sediments | Smaller pieces of rock that have undergone
weathering.
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| Seismogram | A record of the seismometer.
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| Seismograph | An instrument used to measure and record
movements in the ground.
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| Sling Psychrometer | An instrument used to measure dew point and
relative humidity.
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| Solar System | All the objects that orbit the Sun under its
gravitational influence.
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| Soluble | The ability for a substance to be dissolved,
especially in water.
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| Source Region | A location over which an air mass gets its
characteristics.
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| Southwesterly Winds | Prevailing winds between 30° N and 60° N.
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| Stable Product | A nonradioactive element after decay.
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| Star | Large ball of gas held together by gravity that
produces energy and shines.
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| Station Model | A symbol on a weather map that illustrates all
the weather conditions at that location.
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| Storm Surge | A dome of water that moves onto shore near the
landfall point of the hurricane.
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| Storm Track | The path that a hurricane takes.
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| Streak | The color of finely crushed powder when a
mineral is dragged across a porcelain plate.
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| Stream | Running water that is confined to a channel.
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| Subduction | The process where one plate is pushed below
another and consumed in the mantle.
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| Sunspot | A spot appearing on the Sun's surface, usually
darker by contrast than its surroundings.
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| Superposition | The idea that the bottom layer is the oldest and
each overlying layer gets progressively younger.
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| Suspension | When a particle remains floating.
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| Temperature | The heat energy present in the atmosphere.
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| Terminal Moraine | A mound of till deposited along the leading edge
of a glacier
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| Terrestrial Planet | Solid surfaced planet with smaller diameters and
higher densities.
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| Thermometer | An instrument used to measure temperature at a
specific location.
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| Topographic Map | A model of an elevation field of Earth’s surface.
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| Topographic Profile | A side view of a geologic feature.
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| Tornado | A rotating column of whirling air with
destructively high winds.
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| Trade Winds | Prevailing winds between 30° N and 0°.
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| Transform Boundary | Boundary where two lithospheric plates are
sliding past one another.
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| Tributary | A smaller stream that feeds a larger stream or
lake.
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| Tropical Depression | Low pressure that produces sustained circular
winds below 39 mph.
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| Tropical Storm | Low pressure that produces sustained circular
winds above 39 mph, but less than hurricane.
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| U-Shaped Valley | The result of glacial erosion on the sides of
valley walls.
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| Unconformity | A break in the rock record or sequence that
usually occurs from erosion.
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| Uniformitarianism | Idea that forces working on our planet today
worked on our planet in the past in the same way.
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| Universe | All the space, matter, and energy in existence.
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| Unstable Product | A radioactive element.
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| V-Shaped Valley | Shape of valley walls from stream erosion.
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| Valley Glacier | Glaciers that form in high elevations in
mountain valleys.
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| Vesicular | Texture that consists of gas pockets that give
the appearance of having holes.
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| Volcanic Rock | Rock that formed on Earth’s surface.
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| Volcano | A vent in the crust of the earth from which
molten material and steam is ejected from
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| Volume | The amount of space that an object occupies.
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| Waning Moon | When the moon decreases in size and
becomes less brilliant.
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| Warm Front | A boundary where less dense warm air
advances over top of more dense cold air.
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| Waxing Moon | When the moon increases in size and
becomes more brilliant.
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| Weather | The present condition of the atmosphere with
respect to changing weather variables.
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| Weather Vane | An instrument used to measure wind direction.
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| Weathering | The breakdown of rock at or near Earth’s surface.
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| Weight | The effect of gravity on weight.
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| Wind | The horizontal movement of air parallel
to the surface.
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| Windward | The side or direction from which the
wind is blowing
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| Zenith | The highest point on the celestial sphere.
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Review the information in the table. When you are ready to quiz yourself you can hide individual columns or the entire table. Then you can click on the empty cells to reveal the answer. Try to recall what will be displayed before clicking the empty cell.
To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
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