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Ecology Final
FINAL
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ecology | the scientific relationships between organisms and their environment |
| Environmentalism | concern about and action aimed at protecting the environment |
| Biotic | derived from living organisms. members of the same species and other species |
| Abiotic | Physical. Not derived from living organisms. |
| Individual | a living being. A single specimen of any type of living creature, plants, and microbes. |
| Population | a group of individuals living in a specific area at a specific time |
| Community | a group of species that occupy a given area interacting directly or indirectly with one another |
| Ecosystem | a group of interacting organisms and their physical environment. |
| Weather | the combination of temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and cloudiness occuring at a specific place and time |
| Convection | the transfer of heat through the circulation of fluids |
| coriolis effect | a mass moving in a rotating system experiences a force acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the axis of rotation |
| biome | a distinct biological community that has formed in response to a shared physical climate |
| Buoyancy | the ability to float in water |
| surface tension | the attractive force exerted upon the surface molecules of a liquid by the molecules around them |
| viscosity | the property of a material that measures the force to separate the molecules and allow an object to pass through |
| Epilimnion | upper layer of warm, lighter, less dense water |
| thermocline | layer where temperature changes rapidly |
| hypolimnion | a deeper layer of cold, dense water |
| diffusion | the general tendency of molecules to move from a region on high concentration to one of lower concentration |
| soil | the layer of chemically and biologically altered material that overlies bedrock or other unaltered material at Earth's surface |
| mechanical weathering | caused by physical forces: water, wind, temp |
| chemical weathering | particles are chemically altered and broken down through chemical reactions: oxidation, hydrolysis, reduction |
| parent material | the material from which soil develops; bedrock |
| soil texture | proportion of different sized soil particles |
| soil structure | particle to soil volume |
| saturation | there is more water than the pore space can hold |
| field capacity | the max amount of water held by soil particles against the force of gravity |
| wilting point | moisture level has decreased to a point where plants can no longer extract water |
| ion exchange capacity | the number of negatively of positively charged sites on soil particles within a volume of soil |
| gene | stretch of DNA that encodes a biological molecule with a particular physiological/behavioral function. The basic unit of inheritance. |
| chromosome | organized structures that consist of DNA and other proteins |
| locus | particular location on a chromosome that is occupied by a particular gene |
| allele | a variant of a gene |
| trait | how an individual looks, functions, and behaves |
| gene pool | the alleles from all the genes of every individual in a population |
| dominant allele | expressed in the heterozygote |
| recessive allele | masked in the heterozygote |
| genotype | the genetic constitution of an organism |
| phenotype | the expression of the genotype |
| qualitative trait | phenotypic characteristics that fall into a limited number of discrete categories |
| quantitative trait | trait that is continuously distributed |
| evolution | changes in genetic competition of a population overtime; descent with modification |
| microevolution | change within a species; can happen over short time scales |
| macroevolution | change above the level of a species |
| mutation | heritable changes in a gene or a chromosome; adds variation to a population |
| gene flow | movement of genes between populations; caused by migration |
| genetic drift | a change in allele frequency as a result of random change |
| genetic bottleneck | reduced genetic diversity that results from a sharp reduction in the size of the population |
| founder effect | small number of individuals leave a large population to colonize a new area and bring with them only a small amount of genetic variation |
| natural selection | differential survival and or reproduction of individuals caused by interactions between the individual and its environment |
| fitness | the proportionate contribution that an individual makes to future generations |
| stabilizing selection | original distribution and tightening it |
| directional selection | population shifts to better survive |
| diversifying or disruptive selection | A + B=C distribution; gray and white bunnies make himalayan bunnies |
| adaptation | any heritable, behavorial, morphological, physiological trait of an organism that has evolved by natural selection and maintains or increases the fitness of an individual in a particular environment |
| Assortative mating (+ or -) | individuals choose mates non-randomly with respect to their genotype, usually with respect to some phenotypic trait. |
| (positive or negative assortative mating | (+): mates are phenotypically more similar to each other than expected by chance. (-): mates are phenotypically less similar to each than expected by chance. |
| inbreeding | mating of individuals in a population that are more closely related than expected by chance |
| sexual selection | bias towards certain members of opposite sex based on specific phenotypic traits |
| intrasexual selection | competition between members of the same sex for mating opportunities |
| intersexual selection | mate choice. members of one sex preferentially mate with members of the other sex that have larger, more intense, or exaggerated characters |
| phenotypic plasticity | the ability of a genotype to give rise to different phenotypic expressions under different conditions |
| developmental plasticity | changes in resource allocation during an organism's growth rate |
| acclimation | reversible phenotypic changes in an organism in response to changing environmental conditions |
| cline | a gradual phenotypic change over a geographic range |
| genetic differentiation | genetic variation between subpopulations (local populations of interbreeding individuals, geographically separated from other populations |
| common garden experiment | aka transplant experiment. Put individuals from different populations in the same environment and see if you get phenotypic differences. |
| ecotype | population adapted to its unique local environmental conditions, but gene flow occurs between adjacent populations. |
| subspecies | populations of a species that are distinguishable by one or more characteristics. very little or no gene flow |
| speciation | the process by which two species arise from one common ancestral species |
| allopatric speciation | speciation between 2 or more spatially disjunct populations. physical barrier |
| sympatric speciation | speciation between 2 or more lineages occupying the same physical location |
| adaptive radiation | the process by which one species gives rise to many. each adapted to exploit differential features of the environment. |
| trade-off | an increase in fitness due to a change in one that is opposed by a decrease in fitness due to a simultaneous change in a second trait. |
| Mesophyll | tissue in a leaf where photosynthesis occurs |
| Chloroplast | organelles that conduct photosynthesis |
| chlorophyll | light absorbing pigment in chloroplasts |
| vascular bundle | transport system in the vascular plants |
| epidermis | outer layer of cells on a leaf |
| stomata | pores in the epidermis that allow gas exchange |
| transpriration | evaporation of water from plants through stomata |
| photosynthesis | convert carbon dioxide and water into simple sugars |
| cellular respiration | aerobic respiration. breakdown of carbs (glucose) to harvest energy |
| net photosynthesis | the difference between uptake of carbon in photosynthesis and loss of carbon through respiration |
| light compensation point | the value of PAR at which the uptake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis = the loss of carbon dioxide in respiration |
| light saturation point | the level of light at which net photosynthesis reaches a max |
| shade tolerance | the ability of a plant to maintain a positive carbon balance in low light conditions |
| water use efficiency | the ratio of carbon stored (after respiration( per unit of water lost (transpiration) |
| root-to-shoot ratio | comparison of biomass of a plant to its leaves/stem |
| micronutrients | needed in small quantities (B,Cl,Cu,Fe) |
| macronutrients | needed in large quantities (CHON) |
| Conformer | less energy; changes in external environmental conditions induce internal changes in the body that parallel the external conditions. |
| regulator | use a variety of physiological, morphological, and behavioral mechanisms to regulate their internal environmental conditions. |
| homeostasis | maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment in a varying external environment |
| feedback | the property of a control system to use its output as a part of its input |
| positive feedback loop | a deviation in the controlled quantity is further amplified by the control system |
| negative feedback loop | a deviation in the controlled quantity is counterbalanced by the control system |
| endothermy | maintaining body temperature through internally generated metabolic heat |
| ectothermy | maintaining body temperature through exchange of thermal energy with the surrounding environment |
| homeotherm | an organism that maintains nearly constant internal body temperature. mammals and birds |
| Poikilotherm | an organism that has varying internal body temperature. All others. |
| heterotherm | an organism that uses both endo/ectothermy |
| microclimate | the climate of very small/restricted areas, especially when it differs from the climate of the surrounding area. |
| Allometry | the study of the relationship of body size to shape, anatomy, and physiology. |
| bergmann's rule | within a broadly distributed clade, species of larger size are found in colder environments, species of smaller size are found in warmer regions. |
| Allen's rule | the appendages of animals are smaller relative to body size in colder climates, larger in warmer climates. |
| Countercurrent heat exchange | physical arrangement of arteries and veins to allow transfer of heat |
| ecological niche | the specific set of environmental conditions in which an organism can live and reproduce. |
| life history | an organism's lifetime patterns of growth, development, and reproduction. |
| parthenogenesis | a type of asexual reproduction in which the offspring develop from an unfertilized egg |
| Dioecious | separate male and female individuals |
| hermaphroditic | possessing both male and female organs |
| monoecious | a type of hermaphroditism in which an individual plant produces separate male and female flowers |
| Simultaneous hermaphrodite | an organism that has both male and female organs at the same time |
| Sequential hermaphrodite | an organism that changes sex during its lifetime |
| mating system | the way a group is structured in relation to sexual behavior; which males and which females mate under what circumstances |
| monogamy | formation of a lasting pair bond between one male and one female |
| Polygamy | acquisition by an individual of 2 or more mates, none of which is mated to another individual. Pair bonds exists between the individual and each mate. |
| polygyny | an individual male pairs with multiple females |
| polyandry | an individual female pairs with multiple males |
| polygyny threshold | a female may expect greater reproductive success by breeding with an already mated male if his territory is sufficiently better. |
| promiscuity | frequent sex with different partners. no pair bonds. |
| semelparous | reproduce only once in a lifetime |
| iteroparous | produce offspring in successive cycles. |
| r-selected | mature early, high fecundity, a lot of small offspring. short lived. weedy species. environment is unpredictable and competition is lax |
| K-selected | mature late, low fecundity, few large offspring, long lived. environment is predictable and competition is fierce |
| Population | a group of individuals of the same species that inhabit a given area at a given time |
| distribution | the spatial location or area that is occupied by a population |
| geographic range | the area that encompasses all of individuals of a species |
| ubiquitous | widespread |
| endemic | restricted distribution |
| abundance | total number of individuals in the population |
| population density | number of individuals per unit area |
| age structure | number or proportion of individuals in different age classes |
| stage structure | number or proportion of individuals in different stages |
| age pyramid | a snapshot of the age structure of a population at some period in time |
| dispersal | one-way movement of individuals in space |
| emigration | individuals move out of a population |
| immigration | individuals move into a population |
| migration | round trip movement (seasonal and daily) |
| demography | the study of the size and structure of a population and spatial/temporal changes in them |
| open population | immigration and emigration occur |
| closed population | no immigration and no emmigration |
| life table | tabulation of mortality and survivorship of a population |
| cohort | track all individuals in a particular cohort (group of individuals born in the same time period) |
| fecundity | how many babies are they having |
| environmental stochasticity | random variations in the environment that affect birth and death rates |
| demographic stochasticity | random variations in birth and death rates from year to year by chance |
| age distribution | the proportion of individual in a various age class for any given year. (number in each age class/total pop size) |
| stable age distribution | the proportion of individuals in each age class does not change over successive years |
| Ix | survivorship. the probability at birth of surviving to a particular age. (Nt/N0) |
| dx | the number of individuals that die during any given time interval (Nt-Nt-1) |
| qx | age specific mortality rates (dt/Nt) |
| bx | age specific birth rate |
| R0 | average number that will be produced by an individual over its lifetime. (Lxbx) |
| sx | survival probability. proportion that survive to the next age class. (1-qx) |
| density dependence | regulation of population growth by the size of the population. Negative feedback loop. |
| intraspecific competition | competition between members of the same species |
| carrying capacity (K) | the line at which a population has reached its maximum |
| overshoot | population grows beyond its carrying capacity |
| die-off | decline in population density - goes below K |
| scramble competition | limited resources are shared equally |
| contest competition | some individuals claim more than their fair share, other individuals get less |
| exploitation competition | competing individuals do not interact directly with one another |
| interference competition | competing individuals directly interact with one another |
| allee effect | reduction in reproductive rates or survival rates at low population population sizes |
| density independence | population growth rates do not depend on population size |
| patch | an area of habitat that differs from its surroundings and has sufficient resources to allow a population to persist |
| matrix | the area that surrounds patches on the landscape unusable habitat. |
| metapopulation | a group of spatially separated populations of the same species which exchange individuals through immigration/emigration. A population of populations. intermediate levels of dispersal. |
| source habitat | high quality patches where a population maintains positive growth rate |
| sink habitat | low quality habitat where a population maintains negative growth rate |
| boundary | the edge of a patch |
| corridor | a route that facilitates movement between patches |
| community | a group of species that occupy a given area interacting directly or indirectly with one another |
| interspecific competition | competition between individuals of two different species |
| zero-growth isocline | the combined values of population size for specie 1 and specie 2 at which the population growth rate of the respective species is 0 |
| competitive exclusion principle | "complete competitors cannot exist" 2 species with the exact same niche cannot coexist because one will always outcompete the other |
| fundamental niche | full range of environmental conditions and resources an organism can possibly occupy and use |
| realized niche | the part of fundamental niche that an organism actually occupies as a result of interactions with other species. |
| character displacement | occurs when morph, behave, phys differences b/t closely related species living in the same environment are enhanced by natural selection resulting from competition b/t the 2 species. |
| predator | a consumer that attacks more than one victim in a life stage. Kills prey immediately upon capture |
| micropredator | a consumer that attacks more than one victim in a life stage. does not kill its prey because it only consumes part of it. |
| numerical response | the relationship between prey density and number of predators due to predator reproduction |
| aggregative response | the relationship between prey density and the number of predators due to predator movement |
| functional response | the relationship between prey density and per capita rate of consumption by predators. |
| coevolution | 2 or more species reciprocally affect each others evolution |
| aposematism | bold colors and patterns that serve as a warning to potential predators |
| batesian mimicry | edible animals living in the same vicinity as inedible species evolve coloration that resembles/mimics the warning coloration of the toxic species. |
| mullerian mimicry | many unpalatable/venemous species share a similar color pattern |
| secondary compounds | chemicals that are not involved in basic metabolism of plant cells, but function to deter herbivory |
| Symbiosis | an interaction between 2 or more organisms of different species living in close proximity, close physical association. |
| parasite | a consumer that feeds intimately on one host during a particular life stage (all things infectious) |
| infectious disease | the illness that results from infection |
| hemiparasite | can photosynthesize, but obtains water by connecting to another plant's xylem. |
| holoparasite | cannot photosynthesize due to lack of chlorophyll. Relies on host for water and nutrients. |
| parasitoid | a parasite that kills its host as a normal and required part of its development |
| hyperparasite | a parasite of a parasite (some are parasitoids some are not) |
| trophically transmitted parasite | a parasite in a prey/host organism that is transmitted to the next host in its lifecycle via predation |
| macroparasite (a typical parasite) | a parasite that does not multiply within its host and does not necessary kill it |
| pathogen (or microparasite) | an infectious agent that multiplies within its host. Can kill, but does not necessarily do so. |
| parasitic castrator | a parasite that eliminates most fitness without killing the host |
| direct transmission | a parasite is transferred from one host to another without the involvement of an intermediate oragnism |
| direct passive | a cyst or spore or egg contacts or is ingested or respired by a host |
| direct active | transmission by freeliving stage-parasitic stage |
| direct contact | transmission via contact between an infected and uninfected host |
| vectored transmission | another organism transmits the parasite between host |
| trophic transmission | occurs when a predator host consumes an infected prey host. |
| vertical transmission | transmission from mother to offspring through gestation, birth, or directly after birth (from milk) |
| simple life cycle | the parasite can complete its entire life cycle in a single host species |
| complex life cycle | the parasite requires multiple hosts species to complete its life cycle. |
| definitive host | final host; the host species in which the parasite reaches maturity |
| intermediate host | 1st, 2nd...all other hosts. any host which harbors a developmental stage |
| emerging infectious disease | those that have recently appeared within a population or whose, incidences geographic range is rapidly increasing |
| zoonotic disease | passed from animals to humans |
| mutualism | a species interaction in which both species benefit from the association |
| facultative mutualism | can survive and reproduce without the association |
| obligate mutualism | cannot survive and reproduce without the association |
| commensalism | a species interaction which is beneficial to one party and does not affect the other |
| amensalism | a specie interaction in which one species adversely affects another, but the affected specie has no influence in return |
| community structure | species composition-the set of species that are present and their relative abundances in an ecosystem |
| species richness | the number of different species represented |
| species evenness | the relative abundance of different species in an area. equitability in distribution of individuals among the species. |
| species diversity | species richness and evenness combined |
| absolute abundance | the number of individuals of each species |
| relative abundance | proportion of individuals that is represented by each species |
| diversity index | a mathematic measurement of species diversity in a community. takes into account both richness and evenness |
| productivity | biomass of producers or consumers that is generated overtime |
| dominant species | a species that predominates within a community |
| keystone species | a species that has a disproportionate impact on a community relative to its abundance/biomass |
| food chain | an abstract representation of feeding relationships within a community |
| food web | interlocking pattern formed by a series of interconnecting food chains |
| connectance | decreases with species richness. the actual number of observed as a proportion of the max possible number of links (s^2) |
| linkage density | a measure of the average number of links per species in a food web. increases with species richness. |
| mean chain length | the average of the lengths of all chains in a food web. increases with species richness. |
| trophic level | hierarchical levels compromising organisms that share the same nutritional relationship to the primary source of energy |
| exploitation competition | competing individuals do not interact directly with one another |
| apparent competition | two species that do not compete with each other for a limited resource nevertheless affect each other indirectly by being prey for the same predator |
| trophic cascade | an indirect specie interaction that originates with a predator and spreads downward through the food web |
| density-mediated indirect effect | an individual effect of specie A on specie C mediated by a change in the population density of specie B |
| trait-mediated indirect effect | an individual effect of specie A on specie C mediated by a change in the trait of specie B. can be behavioral, morphological, physiological |
| bottom-up control | a population is controlled by its resource |
| top-down control | a population is controlled by its consumers |
| zonation | spatial change in community structure |
| edge effect | boundaries often have higher diversity than surrounding areas |
| succession | temporal change in community structure |
| climax comunity | the community present when steady state is reached |
| primary succession | occurs on a site previously unoccupied by a community |
| secondary succession | occurs on previously occupied sites after disturbance |
| disturbance | any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts an ecosystem, community, population structure changes resource pools, environment, etc. |
| early successional species | aka pioneer species. the first specie to colonize an area. good dispersal abilities |
| late successional species | colonize an area after pioneer species have arrived. lower dispersal abilities, slower growth rates, larger and longer lived. |
| ecosystem | a group of interacting organisms and their physical environment |
| standing crop biomass | the amount of accumulated organic matter found in an area |
| primary productivity | harnessing of sunlight by autotrophs |
| gross primary productivity | energy fixed per unit area per unit time, by photosynthetic activity of autotrophs |
| net primary productivity | the rate of energy storage as organic matter after respiration. weight of plant biomass per unit area per unit time |
| lotic | flowing water (streams/rivers) |
| lenthic | standing water (ponds/lakes) |
| allochthonous | produced outside the system |
| autochthonous | produced within the system |
| secondary productivity | the rate at which heterotrophs produce biomass per unit area per unit time |
| consumption efficiency | the ratio of ingestion to production at the next lower trophic level (In/Pn-1) |
| assimilation efficiency | the ratio of assimilation to ingestion (A/I) |
| production efficiency | a measure of how efficiently the consumer is incorporating assimilated energy into secondary production (P/A) |
| trophic efficiency | the ratio of productivity in a given trophic level (Pn) to the productivity of the trophic level its organisms feed on (Pn-1): TE=Pn/Pn-1 |
| scavenger | an organism that consumes dead animals |
| detritivore | an organism that breaks down dead organic matter and waste products (detritus) into smaller particles |
| decomposer | an organism that breaks down dead organic material into simpler elements/compounds that can be recycled through the ecosystem |
| decomposition | the breakdown of chemical bonds formed during the construction of plant and animal tissues. leaching, fragmentation, mineralization |
| aerobic | with oxygen |
| anaerobic | without oxygen |
| leaching | nutrients are released into soil when water falls onto leaves and then into soil |
| mineralization | microbial breakdown of organic matter in soil to inorganic substances |
| immobilization | the uptake and assimilation of mineral nitrogen by microbial decomposers |
| nutrient cycling | the pathway of an element through the ecosystem, from assimilation by organisms to release by decomposition |
| rhizosphere | a region of the soil where plant roots function |
| POM | particulate organic matter; dead organisms and organic material that drifts towards the bottom |
| DOM | dissolved organic matter |
| nitrogen fixation | the process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into forms that producers can use. |
| denitrification | converting nitrates into nitrogen gas |
| eutrophication | excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from land. Causes dense growth of autotrophs. when they die, cause hypoxia. |
| species accumulation curve | a graph showing the cumulative number of species of living things recorded in a particular environment as a function of the cumulative effort spent searching for them. |
| alpha diversity | diversity within a particular area |
| beta diversity | the change in specie diversity between ecosystems |
| gamma diversity | a measure of overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a region |
| Hopkins' bioclimatic law | there's a parallel relationship between elevational and latitudinal gradients of specie richness |
| anthropocene | the current geological epoch which is dominated by human impacts on the planet. |
| enemy release hypothesis | the success of introduced species occurs because they are fixed from their predators, competitors, and parasites in their introduced range |
| phenology | the timing of seasonal activities |
| intrinsic value | inherent value not tied to economic benefit; value because it exists |
| instrumental value | use value; economic value |
| ecosystem service | any benefit that wildlife/ecosystems provide to people. |
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