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a&p test 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is Anatomy | study of the structure of body parts |
| What is Physiology | study of body functions |
| Histology | Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of tissues. |
| Median plane | Specific sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline. |
| Effector | Muscle or gland (or other organ) capable of being activated by nerve endings. |
| Digestion | A series of catabolic steps in which complex food molecules are broken down to their building blocks by enzymes. |
| Organ | Attachment of a muscle that remains relatively fixed during muscular contraction. |
| Positive feedback mechanisms | Feedback that tends to cause the level of a variable to change in the same direction as an initial change. |
| Serous fluid | Clear, watery fluid secreted by cells of a serous membrane. |
| Visceral serosa | The part of the double-layered membrane that lines the outer surfaces of organs within the ventral body cavity. |
| Homeostasis | A state of body equilibrium or stable internal environment of the body. |
| Negative feedback mechanisms | The most common homeostatic control mechanism. The net effect is that the output of the system shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity. |
| Appendicular | Relating to the limbs; one of the two major divisions of the skeleton. |
| Coronal plane | Longitudinal (vertical) plane that divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior parts. |
| Metabolism | Sum total of the chemical reactions occurring in the body cells. |
| Sagittal plane | A longitudinal (vertical) plane that divides the body or any of its parts into right and left portions |
| Organ system | A group of organs that work together to perform a vital body function; e.g., the nervous system. |
| Contractility | Muscle cell′s ability to move by shortening. |
| Frontal planes | Longitudinal (vertical) plane that divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior parts. |
| Parasagittal plane | All sagittal planes offset from the midline. |
| Receptor | A cell or nerve ending of a sensory neuron specialized to respond to particular types of stimuli protein that binds specifically with other molecules, neurotransmitters, hormones, paracrines, antigens. |
| Midsagittal plane | Specific sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline. |
| Parietal serosa | The part of the double-layered membrane that lines the walls of the ventral body cavity. |
| Excretion | Elimination of waste products from the body. |
| Viscera | A group of internal organs housed in the ventral body cavity. |
| Oblique sections | A cut made diagonally between the horizontal and vertical plane of the body or an organ. |
| Nutrients | Chemical substances taken in via the diet that are used for energy and cell building. |
| Mediastinum | The medial cavity of the thorax containing the heart, great vessels, thymus, and parts of the trachea, bronchi, and esophagus. |
| Cross section | A cut running horizontally from right to left, dividing the body or an organ into superior and inferior parts. |
| Atmospheric pressure | Force that air exerts on the surface of the body (760 mm Hg at sea level). |
| sequence of levels forming the structural hierarchy | chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal |
| The structural and functional unit of life is | a cell |
| Which of the following is a major functional characteristic of all organisms? | movement , growth, metabolism, responsiveness |
| Two of these organ systems bear the major responsibility for ensuring homeostasis of the internal environment. Which two? | nervous and endocrine system |
| Which ventral cavity subdivision has no bony protection | abdominal cavity. |
| According to the principle of complementarity, how does anatomy relate to physiology? | Anatomy and physiology are connected together, and are not separated from each other because function always reflects structure |
| List and describe briefly five external factors that must be present or provided to sustain life. | nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure. |
| Define plane and section. | the body cut, or sectioned, along a flat surface called a plane the body is often cut, or looked at in sections |
| Assume that the body has been sectioned along three planes: (1) a median plane, (2) a frontal plane, and (3) a transverse plane made at the level of each of the organs listed below. Which organs would be visible in only one or two of these three cases? | lungs and kidneys |
| When the anatomy of a body part is intimately tied to its specific function, scientists call this the principle of | complementarity |
| Which of the following is a logical organization? | Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues |
| Which body system is responsible for manipulating the environment? | Muscular |
| What is the definition of homeostasis? | The ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously Which of the following is an example of a negative feedback mechanism? |
| When the anatomy of a body part is intimately tied to its specific function, scientists call this the principle of | hierarchical organization |
| Which of the following is an example of a negative feedback mechanism? | rise to further stimulate more contractions. The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormone under the influence of the hormone TSH. TSH release decreases when thyroid hormone levels reach their set point. |
| Which of the following is not an example of matter? | Energy |
| Chemical energy is __________. | energy stored in bonds between atoms a form of potential energy |
| When you row a boat, your arms provide which type of energy? | Mechanical |
| Which of the following is an example of the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy? | ATP hydrolysis to drive muscle contraction |
| When energy is converted from one form to another, some of the original energy is “lost” as ________. | heat |
| The four elements that comprise 96% of living matter are __________. | carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen |
| An atom’s nucleus contains __________. | protons and neutrons |
| the atomic number is always equal to the number of _______ in an atom. | protons |
| The element lithium has 3 protons and 4 neutrons in its nucleus. Its mass number is | 7 |
| When atoms of two different elements bind together, they form a(n) | compound |
| Which of the following mixture(s) are homogeneous? | Solutions |
| The most important determinant of an atom’s bonding behavior is | the number of valence shell electrons |
| When atoms gain electrons | the atoms become negatively charged |
| Isotopes have the same number of _______ but differ in the number of | protons; electrons |
| Ionic bonds connect atoms together by | attractions between cations and anions |
| An ionic bond is formed between | a cation and an anion |
| Covalent bonds occur when | electrons are shared between atoms |
| Which type of bond is formed when electrons are shared unequally between atoms? | Polar covalent |
| An atom will tend to be electronegative if | it lacks only 1–2 electrons in the valence shell |
| Water (H2O) is a polar molecule. Oxygen is electronegative and hydrogen is electropositive. This suggests that | the oxygen pulls electrons away from hydrogen and becomes more negative |
| Hydrogen bonds are somewhat similar to ionic bonds because | they are both due to opposite charge attractions |
| In a chemical reaction, ___________ combine to form | reactants; products |
| Bonds are broken during which type of reaction? | Endergonic |
| Water’s unique properties like high heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, and universal solvent can be attributed to its | ability to form hydrogen bonds |
| Which of the following is NOT a function of water? | Source of electrolytes |
| The four major organic compounds that comprise our bodies are | Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. |
| The major function of carbohydrates in the body is | CEULLAR FUEL |
| Which type of reaction occurs when biological molecules are broken down? | Hydrolysis reactions |
| The three major subclasses of lipids include phospholipids, steroids, and | triglycerides |
| A steroid is an example of | a lipid |
| The major building block for proteins is __________. | amino acids |
| Functions of proteins do not include acting as | genes |
| Which of the following describes the tertiary structure of proteins? | α-helical or β-pleated regions of the polypeptide chain folded upon one another |
| The quaternary level of protein structure involves | aggregations of polypeptides forming a complex protein |
| An enzyme’s ____________ is the molecule upon which an enzyme acts. | substrate |
| Increasing the concentration of an enzyme’s substrate (up to a point) would ___________ the reaction. | speed up |
| The major building blocks of nucleic acids are | nucleotides |
| The four DNA nucleotides are | adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine |
| Which of the following is not a metabolic function of ATP? | Providing energy for diffusion |
| metabolic function of ATP? | Providing energy for anabolic reactions Providing energy to transport substances across membranes Providing energy for muscles to shorten |
| Which substance is the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell? | ATP |
| The three main components of all cells include the plasma membrane, the nucleus, and the | cytoplasm |
| Phospholipids orient themselves in aqueous solutions such that | the polar heads face the interior and exterior of the cell with the lipid tails forming the center of the membrane |
| What stabilizes the membrane while decreasing the fluidity of the membrane? | Cholesterol |
| In areas of the body subject to a higher degree of mechanical stress, which of the following types of membrane junctions would you expect to be most prevalent? | Desmosomes |
| A red blood cell placed into a container of distilled water will ________ water via ____________. | gain; osmosis |
| When movement of Na+ ions down their concentration gradient drives the transport of other substances across the cell membrane, it is called | secondary active transport |
| Cells that store large quantities of chemicals to be released to the exterior do so in structures called | vesicles |
| In areas of the body exposed to the external environment and pathogens, such as in the lungs, which type of vesicular transport would you expect to be most prevalent? | Phagocytosis |
| The sodium-potassium pump | pumps Na+ out of and K+ into the cell |
| What is the fluid component between the plasma membrane and nuclear envelope called? | Cytoplasm |
| Which organelle contains enzymes that detoxifies harmful substances? | Peroxisomes |
| You would expect that cells that expend a great deal of energy, such as skeletal muscle cells, would have increased quantities of | mitochondria |
| Intensely biosynthetic secretory cells such as neurons would be expected to have greater amounts of _________ than other cells. | rough ER |
| During which stage of the cell’s life cycle is DNA replicated? | S |
| he ________ stage of the neuron cell cycle is the reason that permanent muscle paralysis occurs. | G0 |
| The main function of DNA is to dictate ___________ production. | protein |
| ____________ is the process whereby protein is made. | translation |
| Every three nucleotides in a gene code for _________ amino acid(s). | one |
| The molecule along which ribosomes slide to dictate protein production is | mRNA |
| Choose the correct order for the missing levels of structural organization | chemical,cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism |
| needed life functions | maintain their boundaries, move, respond to environmental changes, take in and digest nutrients, carry out metabolism, dispose of wastes, reproduce themselves, and grow |
| Survival Needs | nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure. |
| receptor | the first component It is a sensor that monitors the environment. It responds to stimuli |
| control center | 2nd determines the set point, which is the level (or range of levels) at which a variable is to be maintained. It analyzes the input it receives by comparing it to the set point and determines the appropriate responds |
| effector | 3rd carries out the control center’s response to the stimulus |
| Negative Feedback Mechanisms | The most common homeostatic control mechanism the net affect is the output of the system shuts off the original stimulus, or reduce its its intensity. |
| Negative Feedback example | body temp |
| Which of the following statements is true about negative feedback mechanisms? | Negative feedback mechanisms work to minimize changes in the value of a controlled variable. |
| Positive Feedback Mechanisms | Feedback that tends to cause the levels of a variable to change in the same direction as the initial change (further responses are even greater) |
| Positive Feedback examples | blood clotting and intensifies labor contractions |
| axial part | makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck, and trunk |
| The appendicular part | consists of the appendages, or limbs, which are attached to the body’s axis |
| The knee is ______ to the ankle. | proximal |
| Sol-gel transformations | Reversible change of a colloid from a fluid (sol) to a more solid (gel) state. |
| norganic compounds | Chemical substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, and many acids and bases. |
| Atomic number | The number of protons in an atom. |
| Acidosis | State of abnormally high hydrogen ion concentration in the extracellular fluid. |
| Active sites | Region on the surface of a functional (globular) protein where it binds and interacts chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge. |
| Rule of eights | The tendency of atoms to interact in such a way that they have eight electrons in their valence shell. |
| Alpha (α)-helix | The most common type of secondary structure of the amino acid chain in proteins; resembles a coiled spring |
| Energy | The capacity to do work; may be stored (potential energy) or in action (kinetic energy). |
| Mechanical energy | The energy directly involved in moving matter; e.g., in bicycle riding, the legs provide the mechanical energy that moves the pedals. |
| Nucleus | Control center of a cell; contains genetic material; (2) clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS; (3) center of an atom; contains protons and neutrons. |
| Covalent bond | Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms. |
| Nonpolar molecules | Electrically symmetrical molecules. |
| Structural proteins | Consist of extended, strandlike polypeptide chains forming a strong, ropelike structure that is linear, insoluble in water, and very stable; e.g., collagen. |
| Decomposition reaction | Chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms |
| Dipole | Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms. |
| Protein | Organic compound composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; types include enzymes, structural components; 10–30% of cell mass. |
| Macromolecules | Large, complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10,000 subunits. |
| Double helix | The secondary structure assumed by two strands of DNA, held together throughout their length by hydrogen bonds between bases on opposite strands. |
| Energy level | Regions of space that consecutively surround the nucleus of an atom; the atom’s electrons are most likely to be found in these regions. |
| Solutes | The substance that is dissolved in a solution. |
| Fatty acids | Linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group at one end. A constituent of fat. |
| Bicarbonate buffer system | Chemical system that helps maintain pH homeostasis of the blood. Also called carbonic acid–bicarbonate buffer system. |
| Kinetic energy | The energy of motion or movement, e.g., the constant movement of atoms, or the push given to a swinging door that sets it into motion. |
| Molarity | A way to express the concentration of a solution; moles per liter of solution. |
| Coenzyme | Nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme; typically a vitamin. |
| Disaccharide | Literally, double sugar; e.g., sucrose, lactose. |
| Mass number | Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. |
| Hydrogen ions | A hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge |
| Neutralization reaction | Displacement reaction in which mixing an acid and a base forms water and a salt. |
| Peptide bond | Bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule. |
| Cofactor | Metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity. |
| Exergonic reactions | Chemical reaction that releases energy, e.g., a catabolic or oxidative reaction. |
| Polymers | A substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units. |
| Chemical equilibrium | A state of apparent repose created by two reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed. |
| Glycerol | A modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol); a building block of fats. |
| Apoenzyme | The protein portion of an enzyme. |
| Activation energy | The amount of energy required to push a reactant to the level necessary for action. |
| Proton acceptors | A substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts. Commonly referred to as a base. |
| Endergonic | Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, e.g., an anabolic reaction. |
| Polysaccharides | Literally, many sugars, a polymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen. |
| Electromagnetic radiation | Emitted photons (wave packets) of energy, e.g., light, X ray, infrared. |
| Buffers | Chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions |
| Ionic bond | Chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms. |
| Monosaccharides | Literally, one sugar; building block of carbohydrates; e.g., glucose. |
| Dehydration synthesis | Process by which a large molecule is synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together |
| Organic compounds | Any compound composed of atoms (some of which are carbon) held together by covalent (shared electron) bonds. Examples are proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. |
| Polypeptide | A chain of amino acids. |
| Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | Organic molecule that stores and releases chemical energy for use in body cells. |
| Enzymes | A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction. |
| Substrate | A reactant on which an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed. |
| Lipids | Hydrophobic organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol. |
| Suspensions | Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out. |
| Electrolytes | Chemical substances, such as salts, acids, and bases, that ionize and dissociate in water and are capable of conducting an electrical current. |
| Proton donors | A substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid. |
| Isomers | One of two or more substances that has the same molecular formula but with its atoms arranged differently. |
| Triglycerides | Fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; are the body’s most concentrated source of energy fuel. |
| Colloids | A mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily. (2) Substance in the thyroid gland containing thyroglobulin protein. |
| Phospholipids | Modified lipid, contains phosphorus. |
| Radioisotopes | Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior. |
| Steroids | A class of lipids derived from (and including) cholesterol; act as hormones and as constituents of phospholipid bilayer membranes. |
| Hydroxyl ions | An ion liberated when a hydroxide (a common inorganic base) is dissolved in water. |
| Alkalosis | State of abnormally low hydrogen ion concentration in the extracellular fluid. |
| planetary model of the atom | is a simplified model of atomic structure |
| The orbital model depicts | probable regions of greatest electron density by denser shading (this haze is called the electron cloud). |
| What two elements besides hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) make up the bulk of living matter? | carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) |
| Covalent bond | Sharing of pairs of electrons. May be polar (not equally shared) or nonpolar (equally shared). strongest |
| Ionic Bonds | Attraction between two oppositely charged ions.Intermediate |
| Hydrogen Bonding | Attraction between a hydrogen atom carrying a partial positive charge () and an electronegative atom with a slightly negative charge ().Weakest |
| The factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions are: | Temp, Concentration,Particle size,Catalysts |
| Water properties | High heat capacity and vaporization ,and Polar solvent properties |
| A salt is an | ionic compound containing cations other than and anions other than the hydroxyl ion |
| All ions | are electrolytes |
| At a pH of 7 | 7 |
| acidic | solutions with a pH below 7 are acidic |
| alkaline | solutions with a pH below 7 are alkaline |
| strong acids | acids that dissociate completely and irreversibly in water |
| strong base | hydroxides, that dissociate easily in water |
| What happens as a solution shifts from pH 7 to pH 5? | H+ concentration increases 100-fold. |
| Which atom can generally form the most number of covalent bonds | carbon |
| Dehydration synthesis | Monomers are joined by removal of OH from one monomer and removal of H from the other at the site of bond formation. |
| Hydrolysis | Monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, adding OH to one monomer and H to the other. |
| Oxygen | 65% of body mass A component of both organic (carbon-containing) and inorganic (non-carbon-containing) molecules. As a gas, it is needed for the production of cellular energy (ATP). |
| Carbon | 18.5% A component of all organic molecules, which include carbohydrates, lipids (fats and oils), proteins, and nucleic acids. |
| Hydrogen | 9.5% A component of all organic molecules. As an ion (proton), it influences the pH of body fluids. |
| Nitrogen | 3.2% A component of proteins and nucleic acids (genetic material). Found as a salt in bones and teeth. Its ionic (Ca?+) form is required for |
| Solution | Solute particles are very tiny, do not settle out or scatter light.Example Mineral water |
| Colloid | Solute particles are larger than in a solution and scatter light; do not settle out. Example jello |
| Suspension | Solute particles are very large, settle out, and may scatter light. Blood |
| Polar covalent bond | Unequal sharing of electrons Charge unbalanced among atoms [molecule has slightly positive (s*) and slightly negative (8) ends] |
| Nonpolar covalent bond | Equal sharing of electrons Charge balanced among atoms |
| Acids | (proton donors) |
| and bases | (proton acceptors) |
| when energy is converted to a different form, | some of the input energy is turned into a highly disordered form of energy, like heat. |
| oxidation-reduction reaction | reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from one species to another. The species that loses electrons is said to be oxidized, while the species that gains electrons is said to be reduced. |
| Triglycerides | Major form of stored energy in the body. Fat deposits (in subcutaneous tissue and around organs) protect and insulate body organs. |
| Phospholipids | Chief components of cell membranes. Help transport lipids in blood (as part of lipoproteins; see below). |
| Cholesterol | Component of cell membranes. Starting molecule for synthesis of all body steroids. |
| Bile salts | Breakdown products of cholesterol. Released by the liver into the digestive tract, where they help with fat digestion and absorption. |
| Lipoproteins | Lipoid and protein-based substances that transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream. |
| Glycolipids | components of cell membranes. Carbohydrates attached to lipids determine blood type and play roles in cell recognition and in recognition of foreign substances by immune cells. |
| Triglycerides consist of | glycerol and three fatty acids. |
| saturated | Fatty acid chains with only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms |
| unsaturated | Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms |
| Phospholipids are | modified triglycerides. Specifically, they have two, rather than three, fatty acid chains. |
| phospate head | hydrophilic polar head |
| Which type of lipid is formed from interlocking hydrocarbon rings? | steroids |
| proteins unfold when | hydrogen bonds begin to break when the pH drops or the temperature rises above normal (physiological) levels. |
| if the temperature or pH change is so extreme that protein structure is damaged beyond repair, the protein is | irreversibly denatured |
| Enzymes allow reactions to | occur at normal body temperature by decreasing the amount of activation energy required |
| An enzyme speeds up a reaction by | lowering the barrier. |
| without an enzyme | more activation energy is needed |
| Mechanism of enzyme action has ___ steps | 3 |
| Mechanism of enzyme action step 1 | Substrate(s) bind to the enzyme’s active site, temporarily forming an enzyme-substrate complex. |
| Mechanism of enzyme action step 2 | The enzyme-substrate complex undergoes internal rearrangements that form the product(s). |
| Mechanism of enzyme action step 3 | The enzyme releases the product(s) of the reaction |
| Which bonds within ATP are considered “high-energy”? | phosphate- phosphate |
| Three examples of cellular work driven by energy from ATP | transport work, mechaincal work, chemical work |
| Acidosis | A condition of acidity or low pH (below 7.35) of the blood; high hydrogen ion concentration. |
| Alkalosis | A condition of basicity or high pH (above 7.45) of the blood; low hydrogen ion concentration. |
| plasma membrane | separates two of the body’s major fluid compartments |
| Functions of the Plasma Membrane | Physical barrier, selectively, permeable, communication, and cell recognition |
| Diffusion | is the movement of molecules or ions from an area where they are in higher concentration to an area where they are in lower concentration. |
| The speed of diffusion is influenced by three factor | concentration, molecular size, temp |
| carrier mediated facilitated diffusion | Via protein carrier specific for one chemical binding of saw you causes transport proteins to change shape |
| simple diffusion | Of lipid soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer |
| Channel mediated facilitated diffusion | Through a channel protein, mostly ion selected on bases of size in charge |
| Osmosis | Diffusion of a solvent, such as water through a specific channel proteins, Aquaporin, or through the lipid bilayer |
| sodium potassium pump | . For each molecule of ATP used, the pump drives three out of the cell and pumps two back in |
| primary active transport | The ATP driven sodium potassium pump, stores, energy by creating a steep concentration gradient for sodium entry into the cell |
| Secondary active transport | As sodium defuses back across the membrane through a membrane called transport or protein, it drives glucose against its concentration gradient into the cell |
| Receptor-mediated endocytosis | The type of endocytosis in which engulfed particles attach to receptors before endocytosis occurs. |
| Anaphase | Third stage of mitosis, meiosis I, and meiosis II in which chromosomes move toward each pole of a cell. |
| Exocytosis | cell interior to the extracellular space as a secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane. Secretion of substances , is enclosed in a membranous vesicle, which fuses with the plasma membrane and ruptures, releasing the substance to the exterior. |
| Centrosome | A region near the nucleus that contains paired organelles called centrioles. |
| Basal bodies | An organelle structurally identical to a centriole and forming the base of a cilium or flagellum. |
| Passive processes | Membrane transport processes that move substances down their concentration gradients (e.g., diffusion). They are driven by kinetic energy and so do not require cellular energy (such as ATP). |
| Peroxisomes | Membranous sacs in cytoplasm containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen to detoxify harmful or toxic substances, such as free radicals. |
| Centrioles | Minute body found in pairs near the nucleus of the cell; active in cell division. |
| Hyperplasia | Accelerated cell division, e.g., in anemia, the bone marrow produces red blood cells at a faster rate. |
| Carriers | A transmembrane protein that forms an aqueous pore, allowing substances to move from one side of the membrane to the other. |
| Endoplasmic reticulum | Membranous network of tubular or saclike channels in the cytoplasm of a cell. |
| Interphase | One of two major periods in the cell life cycle; includes the period from cell formation to cell division |
| Membrane receptors | A large, diverse group of integral proteins that serve as binding sites for signaling molecules |
| Cisterns | Any cavity or enclosed space serving as a reservoir. |
| Amoeboid motion | The flowing movement of the cytoplasm of a phagocyte as it moves across a surface. |
| Cytosol | Viscous, semitransparent fluid substance of cytoplasm in which other elements are suspended. |
| Channel | A transmembrane protein that forms an aqueous pore, allowing substances to move from one side of the membrane to the other |
| Signal sequence | A short peptide segment present in a protein being synthesized that causes the associated ribosome to attach to the membrane of rough ER. |
| Desmosomes | Cell junction composed of thickened plasma membranes joined by filaments. |
| Autolysis | Process of autodigestion (self-digestion) of cells, especially dead or degenerate cell |
| Codon | The three-base sequence on a messenger RNA molecule that provides the genetic information used in protein synthesis; codes for a given amino acid. |
| Second messengers | Intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical (e.g., hormone or neurotransmitter) to a receptor protein; mediates intracellular responses to the chemical messenger. |
| Translation | The second major step in the transfer of genetic code information, in which the information carried by mRNA is decoded and used to assemble polypeptides. |
| Nucleosomes | Fundamental unit of chromatin; consists of a strand of DNA wound around a cluster of eight histone proteins. |
| Glycocalyx | A layer of externally facing glycoproteins and glycolipids (a “cell coat”) on or near a cell’s plasma membrane; its components determine blood type and are involved in cellular interactions. |
| Ligand | Signaling chemicals that bind specifically to membrane receptors. |
| Anticodon | The three-base sequence complementary to the messenger RNA (mRNA) codon. |
| Messenger RNA (mRNA) | Long nucleotide strands that reflect the exact nucleotide sequences of the genetically active DNA and carry the DNA’s message. |
| Aquaporins (AQPs) | Transmembrane proteins that form water channels. |
| Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) | A constituent of ribosomes that assists in protein synthesis. |
| Gap junction | passageway between two adjacent cells; formed by transmembrane proteins called connexons. |
| Cyclic AMP | Intracellular second messenger that mediates the effects of the first (extracellular) messenger (hormone or neurotransmitter); formed from ATP by a plasma membrane enzyme (adenylate cyclase). |
| Microfilaments | Strands made of spherical protein subunits called actin |
| Intermediate filaments | Tough, insoluble protein fibers constructed like woven ropes composed of tetramer (4) fibrils |
| Microtubules | Hollow tubes of spherical protein subunits called tubulin |
| • Nuclear envelope | Double-membrane structure pierced by pores. Outer membrane continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.Separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm and regulates passage of substances to and from the nucleus. |
| • Nucleolus | Dense spherical (non-membrane-bounded) bodies, composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins. Site of ribosome subunit manufacture. |
| Chromatin | Granular, threadlike material composed of DNA and histone proteins.DNA constitutes the genes. |
| Plasma Membrane | double layer of phospholipids within which cholesterol and proteins are embedded. Proteins may extend entirely through the lipid bilayer or protrude on only one face. Most externally facing proteins and some lipids have attached sugar groups. |
| Plasma Membrane Function | external cell barrier. Transmembrane proteins act as receptors for chemical messengers as transport proteins, and in cell-to-cell recognition. Maintains a resting potential that is essential for functioning of excitable cells. |
| Ribosome | The sites of protein synthesis. |
| • Rough endoplasmic reticulum | Sugar groups are attached to proteins within the cisterns. Proteins are bound in vesicles for transport to the Golgi apparatus and other sites. External face synthesizes phospholipids. |
| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | Site of lipid and steroid (cholesterol) synthesis, lipid metabolism, drug detoxification, and Ca?* storage. |
| Goli Apparatus | Packages, modifies, and segregates proteins for secretion from the cell, inclusion in lysosomes, and incorporation into the plasma membrane. Modifies carbohydrates on proteins. |
| Peroxisomes | The enzymes detoxify a number of toxic substances. The most important enzyme, catalase, breaks down hydrogen peroxide. |
| • Lysosomes | Sites of intracellular digestion. |
| Transcription | DNA- pre-mRNA |
| RNA Processing | re-mRNA- mRNA |
| Translation | mRNA-Polypeptide |
| 1st step of NA K pump | Three cytoplasmic Na* bind to pump protein. |
| 2nd step of NA K pump | Na* binding promotes hydrolysis of ATP. The energy released during this reaction phosphorylates the pump. |
| 3rd step of NA K pump | Phosphorvlation causes the pump to change shape, expelling Na* to the outside. |
| 4th step of NA K pump | A Two extracellular K+ bind to pump. |
| 5th step of NA K pump | k+ binding triggers release of the phosphate. The dephosphorvlated pump resumes its original conformation. |
| 6th step of NA K pump | The pump protein binds ATP and releases K* to the inside, and Na* sites are ready to bind Na* again. The cycle repeats. |
| What makes up cell membrane | lipids, proteins carbs |
| lipids in cell membrane | Phospholipid bilayer, Cholesterol can flip easily to the other layer,Phospholipids can move side to side and rotate, but rarely flip to the other layer. |
| proteins in cell membrane | Integral proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer.Lipid anchor attached to protein.Peripheral proteins are anchored to the membrane or to other proteins. |
| carbs in cell membrane | Carbohydrates can be attached to lipids, forming glycolipids.Carbohydrates can be attached to proteins, forming glycoproteins. |
| glycocalyx provides | identity molecules—highly specific biological markers by which approaching cells recognize each other |
| Blood vessel feedback step 1 | Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall Positive feedback cycle is initiated. |
| Blood vessel feedback step 2 | Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals. |
| Blood vessel feedback step 3 | Released chemicals attract more platelets. |
| Blood vessel feedback step 4 | Platelet plug is fully formed Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed. |
| Tight junctions | Impermeable junctions • Form continuous seals around the cell • Prevent molecules from passing between cells |
| Desmosomes | • Anchoring junctions • Bind adiacent cells together like molecular Velcro® • Help keep cells from tearing apart |
| Gap junctions | Communicating junctions • Allow ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell • Particularl important in heart cells and embrvonic cells |
| Stimulus that starts sweating process | heat |
| receptor sweating process | Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain •Afferent pathway |
| sweating process control center | (thermoregulatory center in brain) Sweat glands |
| Response sweating process | Evaporation of sweat Body temperature falls; stimulus ends |
| Transport | A protein (left that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. • Some transport proteins (right) hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane. |
| Receptors for signal transduction | A membrane protein exposed to outside of cell may have binding site that fits the shape of a specific chemical messenge When bound, chemical messenger may cause a change in shape in the protein that initiates a chain of chemical reactions in the cell. |
| Enzymatic activity | A membrane protein may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adiacent solution. • A team of several enzymes in a membrane may catalyze sequential steps of a metabolic pathway as indicated (left to right) here. |
| Cell-cell recognition | Some glycoproteins (proteins bonded to short chains of sugars which help to make up the glycocalyx) serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells. |
| Attachment to the ctoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM) | Elements of the cvtoskeleton and the extracellular matrix may anchor to membrane proteins. • Helps maintain cell shape, fixes the location of certain membrane proteins, and plays a role in cell movement. |
| Cell-to-cell joining | Membrane proteins of adiacent cells may be hooked together in various kinds of intercellular junctions. • Some membrane proteins (cell adhesion molecules or CAMs) of this group provide temporary binding sites that guide cell migration |
| The key role of K* in generating the resting membrane potential. | k+ diffuse down steep concentration gradient K* results in a negative charge on the plasma membrane k+ also move into the cell attracted to the neg charge negative membrane potential - when K goes out of & cell equals K+ movement into the cell. |
| RNA polymerase | binds to the promoter, pries apart the two DNA strands, and initiates mRNA synthesis |
| RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, | joining together RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA. It elongates the mRNA transcript one nucleotide at a time, unwinding the DNA double helix in front and rewinding it behind. |
| mRNA svnthesis ends when | the polvmerase reaches a special nucleotide sequence called a termination signal. |
| The DNA-RNA hybrid: | small region of RNA is still hydrogen bonded to the template DNA. |
| alkalosis | Whenever the pH of arterial blood rises above 7.45 |
| acidosis | A drop in arterial pH below 7.35 |
| The three major chemical buffer systems in the body are | the bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein buffer systems |
| (hypoventilation) | leads to acidosis net carbon dioxide retention |
| hyperventilation | net elimination of , causes alkalosis. |
| Respiratory acidosis | Impaired lung function (e chronic bronchitis, cystic fibrosis, emphysema), gas exchange, ventilatory movement: paralyzed respiratory muscles, chest injury, obesity Narcotic/ barbiturate overdose or injury to brain stem: depression of respiratory centers |
| Respiratory Alkalosis | Strong emotions: pain, anxiety, fear, panic attack Hypoxemia: asthma, pneumonia, high altitude; represents effort to raise Po2 at the expense of excessive COz excretion Brain tumor or injury: abnormal respiratory controls |
| Metabolic Acidosis | Severe diarrhea: bicarbonate-rich intestinal secretions rushed through digestive tract before reabsorbtion Renal disease: failure of kidneys to rid body of acids formed by normal metabolic processes Untreated diabetes mellitus: lack of insulin |
| Metabolic Alkalosis | Vomiting: loss of HCI so H+ withdraws from blood to replace stomach acid H* decreases HCO- increases Selected diuretics: cause K+ depletion and HO loss. Low K+ stimulates tubule cells to secrete H+. Ingestion of excessive sodium bicarbonate (antacid): bi |
| Bicarbonate Buffer System | Mixture of H,CO, (weak acid) and salts of HCO (weak base) • Main ECF buffer; also operates in IF |
| Phosphate Buffer System | Salts of H PO4 (weak acid) and HPO,?- (weak base) • Important buffer in urine and ICF |
| Protein Buffer System | Some amino acid side chains can act as weak acids (- COOH) or weak bases (e.g., - NH,) • Most important buffer in ICF; also in blood plasma |
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