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Anatomy 2 Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the methods of body communication? | Gap junctions, Paracrines, Neurotransmitters, and Hormones |
| What is the main function of the Endocrine system? | synthesizes and secretes hormones (endocrine and exocrine) |
| Endocrine | contain no ducts, and secrete DIRECTLY into the bloodstream |
| Exocrine | contains ducts and secrete onto surface |
| What gland contains fenestrated capillaries? | Endocrine glands |
| What is an example of a neurotransmitter and a hormone? | Dopamine |
| The Hypothalamus | the critical center endocrine control |
| What tissue makes up the Pituitary Gland (Anterior and Posterior) ? | Anterior= epithelial Posterior= nervous |
| Anterior Pituitary | produces and secretes under Hypothalamus control (3/4 of gland) |
| Posterior Pituitary | direct downward extension of hypothalamus |
| What are the 6 hormones synthesized by the Anterior Pituitary? | FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH, Prolactin and GH |
| FSH | ovary produces sex hormones and sperm production |
| LH | stimulates ovulation (egg release) and testes (produce testosterone) |
| TSH | stimulates thyroid |
| ACTH | adrenal cortex releases cortisol |
| Prolactin | stimulates milk production |
| GH | stimulates tissue growth |
| What two hormones does the Posterior Pituitary release? | Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)- released in response to dehydration Oxytocin- stimulates letting down of milk and stimulates uterus during labor |
| How are hormones released? | in surges |
| What are the 6 hormones secreted by the Hypothalamus? | TRH, CRH, GnRH, GHRH, PIH, Somatostatin |
| Pineal Gland | connected to visual input and produces melatonin |
| Thymus Gland | T-lymphocyte (t cells) mature and direct the entire immune system |
| Parathyroid Gland | 4 glands at posterior corner and secretes PTH (supports calcium level) |
| Thyroid Gland | (INCREASE METABOLIC RATE) secrete thyroid hormone for storage and is stimulated by TSH |
| C- Cells | clear cells that make up calcitonin scattered in thyroid gland |
| What are the two layers of the adrenal gland? | Adrenal Medulla and Adrenal Cortex |
| Adrenal Medulla | releases epinephrine |
| Adrenal Cortex | releases corticosteroids |
| What is corticosteroids made of? | Cholesterol |
| What are the 5 adrenalcorticoid steroids? | Aldosterone, Cortisol, Androgens, Estradiol, and Progesterone |
| Pancreatic Islets | endocrine cells scattered across the pancreas |
| What are the two major pancreatic islet types ? | Alpha and Beta |
| Alpha islets | secrete glucagon (increases blood sugar) |
| Beta islets | secrete insulin (decreases blood sugar) |
| Gonads | release eggs by ovary and release sperm out of testicle |
| Synergistic Target Cells | 2 hormonal effects with the same effect is additive |
| Permissive Target Cells | hormone can only have an effect if an initial hormone permitted the second hormone to |
| Antagonistic Target Cells | one hormone interferes with another |
| Where are most hormones metabolized? | liver |
| What is released as an immediate stress response? | epinephrine and norepinephrine |
| What can long term stress cause? | Hypertension |
| Parocrine | signals released by cells that only effect nearby cells of the same tissue |
| The Eicasonoid Parocrine Pathway | Lipoxygenase converts to Leukotrines Cyclooxygenase converts to Prostacyclin or Thomboxanes |
| What makes up blood plasma? | Proteins, Water, Nutrients, Wastes, Electrolytes, Gases, and Hormones |
| What are the 3 blood plasma proteins? | Albumin, Globulin, Fibrinogen (most synthesized in liver) |
| Albumin | most abundant plasma protein and acts as a transport protein, and contributes to osmolarity/viscosity |
| Globulins | vital immune system antibodies |
| Fibrinogen | important blood clotting protein |
| What is the most important waste carried by plasma? | Urea |
| Plasma Viscosity | blood's resistance to flow (thickness) |
| Plasma Osmolarity | measure of concentration of substances in plasma that can not pass through plasma wall |
| Where are stem cells made? | bone marrow |
| What are formed elements derived from? | marrow stem cells |
| What are the 5 types of stem cell differentiations? | erythroblast, myeoblast, lymphoblast, monoblast, megakaryoblast |
| Hemopoesis | the continual replenishment of blood cellular components |
| What hormone influences Stem Cell differentiation? | Erythropoetin |
| What is the most abundant red blood cell? | Erythrocyte |
| What protein do erythrocytes use? | Hemoglobin |
| How do erythrocytes get their energy? | Anaerobic fermentation (creates ATP via glycolosis) |
| What is hemoglobin? | O2 and CO2 transport protein |
| What chains do hemoglobin ALWAYS have? | alpha chain (beta can vary) |
| How many oxogen molecules can ONE heme group carry? | ONE |
| What gives the erythrocyte flexibility in it's cytoplasm? | Spectrin and Actin |
| Hematocrit | percentage of whole red blood cell in your blood |
| How long do RBC's live? | roughly 120 days |
| Erthryopoeisis | formation of red blood cells |
| Reduced oxogen to the kidney stimulates what? | Erythropoesis |
| Reticulocyte | end product of hemoglobin synthesis ( nucleus and organelle are expelled from cell) |
| Polycythemia | chronic elevated erythropoetin |
| What organ removes old RBC's? | spleen |
| What is the site of O2 binding in a heme group? | iron |
| What is the protein used to transport iron in the blood? | Transferrin |
| Hemolysis | any disease in which red cell's die at a young age |
| Haptoglobin | removes hemoglobin directly released in the blood |
| Anemia | low hematocrit (more common in females) |
| What is the most common cause of anemia? | Iron deficency |
| What common vitamin deficency causing anemia? | Folic acid |
| What causes sickle cell anemia? | homozygous inheritance of a beta chain mutation |
| Type A blood has antibodies against? | B |
| Type B blood has antibodies against? | A |
| Type AB blood has antibodies against? | nothing |
| Type O blood has antibodies against? | both A & B |
| What blood type is the universal donor? recipient? | AB is universal recipient and O is the universal donor. |
| What is the main role of a leukocyte? | fight infection |
| What are the 5 leukocyte types? | Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Lymphocyte, and Monocyte |
| What is the most abundant white blood cell? | Neutrophil |
| Leukemia | cancer of the bone marrow |
| What are platelets? What is their function? | cell fragments off large marrow cells, they aid in blood clotting |
| Thrombopoesis | platelet formation |
| What is the first thing that occurs to form a blood clot? | Vascular spasm occurs (response to vessel injury) |
| Upon vessel injury what is exposed? and what is created? | collagen is exposed and the platelets become sticky to form a platelet plug |
| What is coagulation? | the final phase of blood clotting where normally dissolved proteins in plasma become activated |
| How does fibrin contribute to blood clotting? | forms a mesh to prevent blood flow out |
| What is secreted in the final phase to retract the clot? | platelet-derived growth factor |
| Pulmonary Circuit (R) | blood flow carries blood to lungs to become oxygenated and pumped out to the body |
| Systemic Circuit (L) | pumps blood out the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart and back to the lungs |
| What encloses the heart? | pericardial sac |
| Pericardium | innermost lining of the heart |
| Epicardium | outermost lining |
| Pericardial cavity | small amount of fluid in the heart space |
| Fibrous Skeleton | collagen skeleton that anchors cardiac muscle cells |
| What are the 4 chambers of the heart? | Right and Left Atria, Right and Left Ventricles |
| What chamber is the most muscular? | Left Ventricle |
| What are the grooves on the surface of the heart? | Sulci |
| What are heart valves composed of? | leaflets (cusps) |
| Left Coronary Artery | provides major blood supply to the left ventricle |
| Right Coronary Artery | provides blood supply to the conduction system of the heart |
| What causes a myocardial infarction? | blockage of coronary artery |
| Atherosclerosis | compromised arteries causing complete blood loss |
| Anastomoses | "side streets" of arteries to prevent total blood loss |
| Cardiomyocyte | cardiac cell |
| What allows cells to stick together? | Fascia adherens |
| Sinoatrial Node | "normal heart pacemaker" starts electrical signal to contract heart muscles |
| Ectopic Focus | an electrical signal to begin heart beat arises from anywhere else but the SA node |
| Nodal rhythm | AV node takes over if SA node is damaged |
| Sinus Rhythm | normal HR |
| All cardiac conduction system cells have what RMP? | unstable resting membrane potential |
| When does the cardiac signal slow down briefly? | in the AV node |
| What RMP do cardiomyocytes have ? | stable resting membrane potential |
| What do cardiomyocytes do? | admit calcium and release stored calcium from the sacroplasm reticulum |
| Abnormal P wave means what? | atrial conduction problems |
| Abnormal QRS means what? | ventricle conduction issues |
| Fibrillation | non-synchronized contraction of a heart chamber |
| Atrial Fibrillation | ventricles fill with blood (loss of P wave) |
| Ventricular Fibrillation | no blood pushed forward and is treated with Defribrilation |
| What do heart valves prevent? | backflow of blood |
| Blood flow is governed by what? | pressure and resistance |
| P wave | depolarization of atria |
| QRS Complex | depolarization of ventricles |
| T wave | repolarization of ventricles |
| What is the first step in the cardiac conduction system? | SA node starts electrical Signal to contract heart muscles |
| What is the second step of the cardiac conduction system? | signal spreads through both atria |
| What is the third step of the cardiac conduction system? | AV node slows down briefly to have intervals between contractions |
| What is the fourth step of the cardiac conduction system? | Atrioventricular bundle branches carry out the signal and it restarts |
| What separates the two heart ventricles? | Interventricular septum |
Created by:
cnelson03
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