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Bio 111 Final Exam
Prep for final exam
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Polar Cell | Cold air from the poles (near the surface) move towards the lower latitudes and interacts with the ferrel cell. The air rises after interaction and returns to sink at the poles again. |
| Ferrel Cell | Air in the ferrel cell move towards the poles near the surface, this air mass collides with another air mass coming from the poles. The air rises after collision and returns at 30 degree latitude to complete the ferrel cell. |
| Hadley Cell | Air from equator carries moisture up with it, moisture falls out, as it moves at a high altitude it comes down w/o H2O, forming deserts. |
| Temperate Deciduous Forest | "Drops Leaves" -> Don't want xylem to fill w/ water, freeze, and crack - Less transpirational demand and lower risk of freeze-induced embolism |
| Sonora Desert | - Mild, wet winters, summer monsoons - Many plant growth forms - High biological diversity |
| Mohave Desert | Winter rains, few succulents or trees |
| Buttressed Roots | - Common in tropical trees - Provides mechanical support - Shallow-rooted, covers large horizontal area for nutrient acquisition |
| Boreal Forest | - Small leaves - Heat up less -> Lower transpiration demand |
| Tundra | Dwarf shrubs, short hyper-active growing season |
| Adiabatic Cooling | Warm moisture-rich air is forced up, cools, rains, then drops back down w/ no moisture |
| Rain Shadow | Patch of land forced to become a desert because mountain ranges blocked the cool air that descends and warms on the leeward side of the range |
| Continentality | Hot & cold (extreme temperatures) the further one goes from the ocean |
| Biogeographic Realms | Characterized by the evolutionary history of the organisms they contain - Geographically isolated; Barriers to gene flow - Biome types shared among biogeographic realms |
| Behavior | Actions or reactions of an organism, usually in relation to the environment; can be unconscious, voluntary or involuntary |
| Ultimate Mechanisms | Function (Adaptation): How does behavior impact survival/reproduction Evolution (Phylogeny): How does behavior compare w/ similar behavior in related species The causes that led the process to evolve |
| Proximate Mechanisms | Causation (mechanism): What stimuli elicit a response/how have responses been modified by learning Development (Ontogeny): How does behavior change w/ age and what early experiences are necessary for behavior to be shown |
| Sensory exploitation | The evolutionary modification of traits to elicit a stronger response in the receiver’s sensory system, potentially due to a pre-existing bias in the receiver |
| Konrad Lorenz | - Fixed action patterns: Initiated by sign stimulus; Instinctive behavioral sequence - Imprinting w/ ducks |
| Ontogeny of Bird Song | Sensory period: Take info in and practice Sensorimotor period: Overlaps w/ sensory; Eventually song crystallizes and is clear |
| Communication | Transmission of information or disinformation among at least 2 individuals - some sense of "intent" involved - sender benefits on average from the response of the recipient |
| Why communicate? | - Social status & aggression - Mating & reproduction - Contact calls - Alarm & distress |
| Channels of communication | - Sound - Light - Chemicals (pheromones) - Electric field - Signal must be perceived by receiver despite degradation caused by transmission thru environment |
| Urbanization's impact on birdsong | Lombard effect and habitat-dependent shift |
| Lombard Effect | Increasing vocal amplitude to minimize the masking effect of anthropogenic noise |
| Habitat-Dependent Shift | Average minimum frequency is significantly higher in urban environments |
| Honest Signal | - Accurate info sent - Fitness increases for both sender and receiver |
| Deceptive Signal | - Sender benefits from receiver's response at cost to receiver - Both intra- and inter-specific |
| Photuris fireflies deceptive signal | Males flash to attract mates, females flash back -> Female flashes after impregnation to attract other insects, then eats them (aggressive mimicry) |
| Honest signal example | Sage grouse displays more strutting = highest mating success at the expense of energy |
| Honeybee dance language | Symbolic communication in insects - Round dance and tail-wagging dance - Bees nest in dark caves, need light to signal directions to food - If vertical comb is in dark, bee uses gravity to signal direction - Bees use polarized light for internal clock |
| Scout Bee | Finds flowers & resources in morning; Measures distance & direction |
| Recruit Bee | Read messages from scout bees, get close to a scout for chemical odors, fly out depending on cues; plant identity through scent, measure distance/direction via acoustic signals |
| How does the Scout Bee measure distance? | - Landmarks; counting objects they see (visual odometer/optic flow) - Waggle duration indicative of distance |
| Cultural Inheritance | Info transmitted thru generations "intergenerational transmission" |
| Cultural Transmission | - Bird trained to operate lever -> Other bird watches this bird -> Learns how to use lever (Skinner's Box Experiment) - Bottle-opening in Bluetits during war - Song learning & dialects in white-crowned sparrows - Dolphins use sponge for foraging |
| Allogrooming | Taking ticks or insects off of one another; Maintain appearance of individuals in same species |
| Genome comparisons of Humans & Chimps | 1. Structural gene differences 2. Regulatory gene differences Answer: Hair & skin genes, not neurological |
| Human Cultural Inheritance | - Major component of human behavior - Genes provide the neural structures for cultural evolution - Traits spread thru populations by learning rules - Homonid brain evolution -> related to tool use, group hunting, social structure |
| Odontocetes (whales) | Have demonstrated behavioral faculties previously ascribed to only primates & humans - Intergenerational transmission - Self-identification - Symbols |
| Population | Group of individuals interacting in an area |
| Population growth parameters | - birth rate (Nt+change in t) - death rate (Nt) - r_max = increase a population of species can increases under perfect conditions - |
| Residual | Difference between point and line; Explains variation for correlation - Temp can influence difference |
| Population Density | The number of individuals per unit of 2-D area or 3-D volume - N_t+1=N_t + B-D - # of individuals in a pop'ln at some time = pop'ln size at time t plus births minus deaths |
| Multiplicative growth | A period in which a pop'ln w/ a positive r value will increase by a # of individuals that is precisely "r" times its initial size |
| Additive Growth | A number is added to each period (instead of a multiple) |
| Why do populations stop growing? | r is density-dependent -> changes as the pop'ln grows and becomes denser -> pop'ln growth rate decreases steadily as the pop'ln grows relative to multiplicative growth |
| Carrying Capacity (K) | r is 0 at carrying capacity and the population stops growing -> reaches dynamic equilibrium in which birth and death are balanced; Max population that can be sustained |
| Density dependence | Usually competition - competition at high density - little competition at low density - Fitness declines as population density increases |
| Allele Effect | - Has 2 equilibrium Mechanisms: - Mate finding - Detection & defense against predators - Pack hunting |
| Broadcast spawning | Sessile reproduction method (asexual reproduction) |
| Interactions Between Species | - Mutualism (+/+) - Commensalism (+/0) - Amensalism (0/0) - Parasitism (+/-) |
| Parasite characteristics | - Intimate association w/ host - Host = habitat & food - Cause harm, but not immediate death - Fitness of parasite shaped by obtaining a host - Definitive host = where they reproduce; multiple hosts in a lifetime |
| Effects of parasites | - Mediate interactions between other species - Reduce host fitness - Regulate host populations - Incredibly strong selective pressure on humans (measles, covid-19) |
| Ectoparasites | - Simple life history - Specialized morphology - Resources variable |
| Endoparasites | - Complex life history - Simple morphology - High source predictability |
| Microparasites | - Multiply in host - Short infection - Long-lasting immunity - Bacteria/Virus |
| Macroparasites | - Completes < 1 gen. per infection - Persistent - Fleas |
| SIR Model | Modeling based on # of host in 3 categories, not on total # of parasites - Birth, susceptible, infected, recovered (& immune) - Susceptible ->(infection) infected ->(recovery) recovered |
| Threshold population density (N_T) for spread of disease: Consequences | - Infectious diseases more likely to invade and persist in lg. population - Diseases w/ high transmission rates have lower threshold densities (N_T small for smallpox, large for malaria) - Vaccination programs: reduce # of susceptibles |
| When are diseases deadly (virulent)? | When multiple strains occur, if reproduction rate is good (future) |
| Horizontal vs. Vertical Transmission | - Multiple infections - High natural rate of host mortality |
| Herd Immunity | A pop'ln of people who are immune/not immune, want R_o to go below 1, immunity of some allows others to develop immunity via pop'ln |
| Predator-prey interactions | Moth ears detect ultrasound from predators or from mates |
| Facultative mutualism | - Seed dispersal - Cleaner fish - Pollination |
| Obligate mutualism | - Termites & protozoa - Cellular organelles - Leaf cutter ants & fungi - Endosymbionts -> Aphids -> suck phloem all day -> bacterial symbiont known as Buchnera which supplies host-essential amino acids |
| Defensive mutualisms | - Acacia-ant -> immediately attack any organisms that try to live/grow on the acacia |
| Mutualism is... | Mutual exploitation, not cooperation - Most mutualism is extremely asymmetrical |
| Pseudocopulation | Deceit pollination - Take advantage of male bees; Make a scent similar to pheromones of female bees -> mimicry |
| Floral Larceny | Individual drinks nectar from base of flower, avoiding pollen |
| Communities | Interacting species <3 |
| Rarefaction curves | (y-axis) # of species + (x-axis) # of individuals |
| Niche | Determined by temperature and humidity |
| Fundamental niche | Entire spectrum & environmental parameters one can live in |
| Realized niche | Where the species actually lives |
| Why did barnacles chthamalus & balanus have a stratified distribution? | Fundamental niche was much bigger than realized niche due to competition - Example of competitive exclusion |
| Competitive Exclusion | The inevitable elimination from a habitat of one of two different species with identical needs for resources |
| Macarthur study of birds in trees | Birds had different nesting times and different peak food requirements; Resource partitioned their supply of insects and ended up occupying different niches. (same tree, diff. resources) |
| Character displacement | 2 sympatric species w/ broadly overlapping distributions of resource use |
| Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) | The total amt. of energy that primary producers capture per unit of time and convert to chemical-bond energy - Energy is lost a heat w/ every step in metabolic pathways |
| Net Primary Productivity (NPP) | The rate at which chemical-bond energy is stored in the tissue of primary producers (less than GPP) - Some of the energy is used to fuel metabolism and some is retained as biomass |
| Community function increases with... | Species diversity, which is made up of species richness (# of species in a community) and species evenness (how similar the species are in abundance) |
| Why do the tropics support such diversity? | 1. Climate conditions 2. Latitude influences climate 3. Animal diversity is higher in more structurally complex habitats |
| Climate conditions (tropics support diversity) | Climate conditions over long time spans have been more stable in the tropics than in temperate regions - Major disturbances at large spatial scales have been rare |
| Latitude influences climate (tropics support diversity) | - Tropics are warm & wet (solar energy abundance) - These conditions promote rapid growth of pri. pro., NPP increases - High NPP enhances diversity and greater energy into food web allows large pop'ln sizes -> lower risk of extinction |
| Animal diversity is higher in more structurally complex habitats | Variation in habitat structure appears to interact w/ greater niche specialization |
| The Theory of Island Biogeography | Explains patterns of species richness found not only on oceanic islands but also on "islands" of one habitat type surrounded by a "sea" of different habitats |
| Components of the Theory of Island Biogeography | 1. # of species stops changing when colonization = extinction 2. Small islands support fewer species than large islands 3. Islands near the mainland have more species than those farther away |
| Ecosystems services have economic value | Ex: NYC paid 1.5 billion to land protection and better sewage treatment in Catskills (Catskills water supply for NYC) |
| Consequences of fragmentation of habitat | Species loss due to reduced amount of habitat that causes populations to shrink and are therefore more prone to extinction |
| Eutrophocation | Rapid growth of phytoplankton & algae due to nutrient-stimulated increases in primary productivity. Also leads to rotting and putrid water. |
| Aquatic NPP varies w/ availability of light and nutrients because... | Light penetrates only the top layers of lakes and oceans so photosynthesis is restricted to those layers, therefore NPP is generally higher in surface than in deep waters |
| Aquatic NPP is high where? | - Where rivers and streams discharge nutrients leached from terrestrial environments into coastal marine areas - Upwelling areas where nutrients from benthic sediments rise with deep water from the bottom of the ocean/lake |
| Disturbance | Sudden environmental change Ex: Volcanic eruption (Krakatau or St. Helen) |
| Succession | Sequence of changes in a community's structure following a disturbance Ex: Lupine & Rhizobium after St. Helen explosion (1st species) - Usually somewhat predictable bc of colonization and predictable post-disturbance environmental change |
| State Transition | Disturbance pushes a system past a tipping point, resulting in a distinctly different community |
| Flux | Flow rate of energy & material thru a community - Energy enters communities thru primary producers |
| Several processes which cause communities to change over time | - Colonization & extinction: New species arrive and cause resident species to go extinct (Golden eagles) - Disturbance - Global change: Earth is never static; physical environment changes can alter the structure of the resident community |
| Closed & Open Systems | Open systems: Individuals move in/out of a population Closed systems: Negligible immigration or emigration in a population |
| Cost-Benefit Approach | Individual animal has only a limited amt. of time & energy, therefore in its relationships w/ other species, can't afford to engage in behaviors that cost more to perform than they bring in benefits |
| Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis | Some level of disturbance favors species richness; Frequency of disturbance determined by size Ex: Colonization of boulders |
| Kangaroo Rats: Principal seed predators | Animals whose density increased in plots where k. rats were removed - Evidence for interspecific competition between rats and ants for seeds - Desert -> Grassland when rats were removed |
| Habitat area and species loss are directly related | - Continuous vs. fragmented habitat |
| Ecosystem function | - Young plant shoots actively produce biomass to achieve growth - Dead organic matter decompose - Plant seeds disperse - Grazing & predation balance function |
| Services & Goods | - Animals supply protein needs of humans - Watersheds provide fresh, clean H2O for human consumption - Trees buffer storms - Some plant species cure ailments - Decomposers provide fertile soil |
| Possible relationships of biodiversity & ecosystem services | 1. Species contribute equally to ecosystem fxn (save them all) 2. Species complementarily contribute (save some) 3. Most species are redundant (not many needed saving) |
| Global Warming effects | - Earlier breeding - Earlier flowering - Birds have increased latitudinal range north for migration - Declining pH of sea surface waters -> lower rates of coral growth as pH declines |
| Ecosystem Services | Provisioning: Goods produced by ecosystems ex: Food, wood to heat houses, fresh water Regulating: Less malaria, less hurricanes, air quality Cultural: Tourism trade (ecotourism), spiritual and religious values |
| Mangroves | - Protection from hurricanes - Fishery nursery - Timber & non-timber products |
| The Tragedy of the Commons | Population problem; Individuals w/ access to a public resource act in their own interest and in doing so deplete the resources |
| Human factors that drive environmental change | 1. Population growth and resource use place greater demands on natural resources and environmental services 2. Coalitions (gov't, civic groups, etc...) determine rate and quantity of how resources are extracted |
Created by:
cecebetts
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