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Biology Test #3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Energy Coupling | use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one |
| ATP contains... | a sugar ribose, with nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it. |
| Bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP can... | be broken by hydrolysis. |
| Fermentation | a catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid |
| Aerobic respiration | catabolic pathway that consumes oxygen and organic molecules, producing ATP. this is the most efficient catabolic pathway and is carried out in most eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic organisms. |
| Cellular Respiration | catabolic pathways of aerobic and anaerobic respiration, which break down organic molecules for the production of ATP |
| redox reactions | a chemical reaction involving the complete or partial transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; short for oxidation-reduction reaction. |
| oxidation | loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction |
| Reduction | addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction |
| Reducing agent | electron donor in a redox reaction |
| Oxidizing agent | electron acceptor in a redox reaction |
| Electron Transport Chain | a sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP |
| Glycolysis | splitting of glucose into pyruvate. Glycolysis occurs in almost all living cells serving as the starting point for fermentation or cellular respiration. |
| Citric Acid Cycle | chemical cycle involving 8 steps.Completes metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules begun in glycolysis by oxidizing pyruvate to carbon dioxide; occurs in mitochondrion in eukaryotic cells & cytosol of prokaryotes;2nd major stage in cellular repispiration |
| Oxidative Phosphorylation | production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; third major stage in cellular respiration |
| Substrate-Level phosphorylation | formation of ATP by an enzyme directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism |
| So what is the point of cellular respiration anyway? (why bother doing it?). And where (in your body) is it happening? | The bodies purpose for cellular respiration is to produce ATP, the bodies form of energy. This happens. This is taking place throughout the whole body. Glycolysis takes place in cytosol, but the rest of it takes place in the mitochondria. |
| What are the major stages of aerobic cellular respiration? Where (in the cell) does each stage occur? | Glycolysis- cytosol Citric Acid Cycle- Mitochondrial matrix electron transport chain- Inner Mitochondrial Membrane |
| Is making ATP endergonic or exergonic? What about ATP hydrolysis? Be sure you know which bond is broken during ATP hydrolysis- you should be able to draw a quick sketch of ATP and show which bond is broken during ATP hydrolysis. | Making ATP is endergonic ATP hydrolysis is exergonic The bond that is broken are the 2 last phosphates. |
| Draw a quick sketch of an ATP molecule. How does it differ from an ADP molecule? What about the structure of ATP makes it good as a ready source of energy for cells? | Draw |
| Outline the path of electrons during cellular respiration. Which carriers carry electrons? During which steps do they pick up electrons, and where do they carry them to? | Glycolysis to pyruvate, pyruvate picks up electrons from glycolysis. NAD+ carries electrons and becomes NADH. NADH picks up electrons, and takes them to the electron transport chain. NADH go back to NAD+ to pick up more electrons, |
| What happens to the carbon skeleton of glucose during cellular respiration? (i.e. is it oxidized or reduced? To what?) | It becomes oxidzied to CO2 |
| What is a redox reaction? (in general termsÉ) What is oxidation? What is reduction? | Coupling of oxidation and reduction oxidation is giving up electrons reduction taking electrons |
| What is the oxidized form of NAD+? What is the reduced form of O2? | NAD+ is the oxidized form. Reduced from of O2 is H2O |
| For aerobic respiration, what is the initial electron donor and the final electron acceptor? | Food is the initial electron donor The final acceptor is oxygen |
| Takes E to get the 3 PÕs on ATP. Therefore, ATP synthesis is | endergonic |
| The reaction illustrated in figure 8.8 is | endergonic |
| When something loses electrons it becomes | oxidized |
| O2/H2O Which is the oxidized form? And how can you tell? | O2, and look for H's |
| When NAD+ accepts e- it becomes | reduced and NADH |
| If carriers are becoming reduced during glycolysis, then what else is true? | glucose is becoming oxidized, and pyruvate is more oxidized than glucose |
| What are the major stages of anaerobic cellular respiration? Which makes more ATP: aerobic or anaerobic respiration? (explain your answer) | Glycolysis (NADH) Citric Acid Cycle (NADH +FADH2) Oxidative Phosphorylation (electron Transport chain) (NAD+, and FAD+) |
| Which stage of cellular respiration generates the most ATP? What is the mechanism of ATP production during this stage? | Oxidative Phosphorylation, the process is chemiosmosis. |
| Is making ATP endergonic or exergonic? What about ATP hydrolysis? Be sure you know which bond is broken during ATP hydrolysis- you should be able to draw a quick sketch of ATP and show which bond is broken during ATP hydrolysis. | Making ATP is endergonic. ATP Hydrolysis is exergonic. The bond that is broken is the last phosphate group. |
| Outline the path of electrons during cellular respiration. Which carriers carry electrons? During which steps do they pick up electrons, and where do they carry them to? | Glucose to pyruvate, to acetylCoa (citric acid cycle) to CO2 NADH (inside cytoplasm) to NAD+ and FADH2 to FAD+ and NAD+ (the rest in |
| What happens to the carbon skeleton of glucose during cellular respiration? (i.e. is it oxidized or reduced? To what?) | Oxidized CO2 |
| You find an organism that reduces nitrate at the bottom of its ETC. What type of organism is this? (be sure you can explain the concept of Òreducing nitrateÓ at the bottom of the ETC, and explain your answer to the question) | Anaerobic, if its not oxygen at the end accepting the electrons its anaerobic. |
| What are the products of glycolysis? | Pyruvate |
| What happens to the pyruvate in order to get it ready to enter the citric acid cycle? (and is it actually pyruvate itself that enters the citric acid cycle?) | Pyruvate gets oxidized to Acetyl CoA, produces another NADH. Acetyl CoA is what enters the citric acid cycle. |
| What molecule accepts (by combining with it) the acetyl CoA at the start of the citric acid cycle? | Oxaloacetate |
| What are the ÒmainÓ products of the citric acid cycle? | CO2, NADH, FADH, and one ATP |
| Where is the electron transport chain involved in aerobic respiration located within our cells? | Mitochondria |
| What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration? What does it become reduced to? | Oxygen, and becomes reduced to H2O |
| During oxidative phosphorylation, which compartment of the mitochondrion acidifies? And what is responsible for the acidification of that compartment? | The inner membrane is becoming more acidic, because of the protons being pumped from the matrix. |
| What is the general name for the process by which ATP synthase makes ATP? | Chemiosmosis |
| What is the energy source actually used by ATP synthase? Be sure you can explain this process in words or with a labeled diagram. | Proton Motive Force. There is a higher number of Hydrogens in the inner membrane space, they want to diffuse into matrix, but cant cross by simple cause they’re charged. So they use the ATP Synthase, and just harnessing the energy that diffusion produces |
| What is a redox reaction? (in general termsÉ) What is oxidation? What is reduction? | Coupling of oxidation and reduction |
| What is the oxidized form of NAD+? What is the reduced form of O2? | NAD+, the reduced form of O2 is H2O |
| For aerobic respiration, what is the initial electron donor and the final electron acceptor? | Initial donor is food, and final acceptor is oxygen. |
| For anaerobic respiration, what is the initial electron donor and the final electron acceptor? (answer in general terms) | Initial is food Final acceptor is anything other than oxygen |
| Be sure you can draw a quick sketch of a mitochondrion and can label the OM, IM, IMS and the matrix. Across which membrane is the PMF generated? And by which molecules, using what as an energy source? | draw |
| Glucose -> Pyruvate happens during ______ & is a(n) ________. | glycolysis; oxidation |
| What happens to the final electron acceptor? | it becomes reduced |
| What would this look like in aerobic respiration? | O2 -> H2O |
| Glucose -> CO2 is a(n) | oxidation |
| Products of glycolysis include | ATP and NADH |
| Compared to glucose, pyruvate is | more oxidized |
| So the pyruvate was made by __________ in the ____________. | glycolysis; cytoplasm |
| NADH -> NAD+ represents | an oxidation |
| Proton pumping | it requires energy so its active transport |
| 1. In Brown fat, is O2 being reduced to H2O at the bottom of the ETC? | Yes, because without the O2 being reduced to H2O the UCP1’s wouldnt be able to function |
| In Brown Fat, is a PMF being generated? | yes |
| In brown fat, if a PMF is being generated, what is generating it? (is it the ETC, UCP1, an organic molecule???) | The electron transport chain. |
| In Brown fat, if a PMF is being generated, what is the E source being use to generate it? | NADH, and the FADH2 donating their electrons. |
| In brown fat, if a PMF is being generated, how is the E stored in the PMF being used? (to make ATP, to do something else?)- and what protein(s) is/re involved in using the PMF in brown fat? | Not storing energy, just releasing it as heat. The protein being used is UCP1. |
| Put the following in order- from most reduced to most oxidized: pyruvate, CO2, glucose | Glucose, pyruvate, and CO2. |
| When glucose becomes (partially) oxidized to pyruvate during _______________(fill in the stage), what becomes reduced? (i.e. what accepts those electrons being stripped off of glucose?) | During glycolysis, NAD+ is reduced. |
| During aerobic respiration, what happens to pyruvate after glycolysis? Does it become more reduced or more oxidized, and to what? | It becomes oxidized to Acetyl CoA |
| What is it about brown fat that makes it so good at generating heat? | Because of the UCP1, the protons flow back down into the matrix, and the constant movement generates heat. The UCP1 doesnt harness energy. |
| Why canÕt H+ move from the IMS to the matrix through the inner mitochondrial membrane? | Because its charged |
| What reaction is catalyzed by ATP synthase when H+ flow through it from the IMS to the matrix? | ADP+Pi -->ATP |
| Is any reaction catalyzed when H+ flow through UCP1 in brown fat? | No, because of facilitated diffusion. |
| Which is more reduced? H2O or O2 | H2O |
| Which is more reduced? FAD or FADH2 | FADH2 |
| which is more reduced? NADH or NAD+ | NADH |
| which is more reduced? pyruvate or CO2 | pyruvate |
| which is more reduced? pyruvate or glucose | glucose |
| Where is the ETC that we use for cellular respiration? | inner mito membrane |
| Which compartment is more acidic? | IMS |
| Pumping protons from matrix to IMS is | active transport |
| What happens to SOME of the E stored in glucose? | some is lost as heat |
| put the following in order of most reduced to most oxidized, then say something about each. Are they all part of the same pathway? If not, then separate them out by pathway. pyruvate, lactate, glucose, CO2 | Glucose- glycolysis Lactate- fermentation pyruvate- product of glycolysis but moves into the citric acid cycle. CO2 - fully oxidized form of glucose, product of citric acid cycle |
| During glycolysis, what most directly accepts the electrons from glucose? | NAD+ accepts the electrons |
| During the ETC stage of aerobic respiration, what most directly donates electrons to the ETC? What accepts electrons at the bottom of the ETC? | NADH and FADH2 donate, oxygen accepts electrons at the bottom of ETF |
| If oxygen is not available, what happens to the ETC? | it becomes backed up and shuts down. |
| What will happen at the top of the electron transport chain in that cell with a lack of oxygen? How does this affect glycolysis? How does this then impact ATP production in the cell? | Fermentation will start, it allows glycolysis to keep running, ATP production is very little |
| During fermentation, how/when is ATP being produced, and how much (lots, lots & lots, little) is being produced? | ATP is produced in glycolysis, but its very little. |
| What accepts electrons from NADH during fermentation? What is the end-product/result of this (in humans)? | Pyruvate, lactic acid (lactate) |
| Normally, what is % oxygen binding by the hemoglobin in RBC at the arterial end of a systemic capillary bed? What about at the venous end of a systemic capillary bed? | 100% at arterial end. 75% at venous end. |
| Exactly where on a Hb molecule does O2 bind? | Heme Group |
| Explain the effect of PO2 and pH on O2 binding by Hb. How does this (the effects you just described) contribute to the release of more O2 at active tissues? | Lower the partial pressure, the more readily oxygen diffuses out. Lower the pH the more oxygen youre going to release. |
| What does CO do to Òmess withÓ aerobic respiration? (i.e. why do you revert to fermentation in the presence of CO?) | Carbon Monoxide binds to the heme group knocking off the oxygens, not delivering oxygen to your tissues, thus causing fermentation because there are no oxygen to accept electrons, |
| What does HCN do to Òmess withÓ aerobic respiration? | HCN inhibits complex 4, causing it to not pass electrons to the oxygen. |
| Why is there a high concentration of oxygenated Hb in the venous end of systemic capillary beds in cases of HCN poisoning? Provide a complete explanation. As part of your explanation, indicate whether this is normal or not, and why. | because oxygen isnt being used in the tissue, this is not normal. |
| What are some key differences that can help you distinguish between HCN and CO poisoning? | The venous oxygen levels, and the Carboxy hemogloin |
| . And why is it important to make an accurate diagnosis of HCN vs CO poisoning? | because if youre treating someone with CO with an HCN treatment youre converting all the rest of the good hemoglobin in a person with CO poisoning youre making it so none of the oxygen can bind, killing them quicker |
| in brown fat, what is happening that is not normal, and what the effect is at the tissue/organism level. | is not normal, because the UCP1’s are allowing a much larger rate of protons to flow through, causing the energy of the PMF to be converted to heat instead of ATP. |
| in CO poisoning, what is happening that is not normal, and what the effect is at the tissue/organism level. | is not normal, because there is not a sufficient amount of hemoglobin, making it hard to deliver oxygen to the cells. |
| In HCN poisoning, what is happening that is not normal, and what the effect is at the tissue/organism level. | is not normal, it affects complex 4 in the electron transport chain, it cant run properly so you run fermentation. |
| Why is having all the NAD Òlocked upÓ as NADH a problem? | no NAD+ means no way to pick up electrons during glycolysis |
| Glucose-> pyruvate is | an oxidation |
| pyruvate -> CO2 is | an oxidation |
| NADH -> NAD+ is | an oxidation |
| During respiration, when does this reaction happen: NADH -> NAD+ | top of the ETC |
| During fermentation, when does this reaction happen: NADH-> NAD+ | when pyruvate when accepts the electrons |
| Compared to pyruvate, lactate must be | more reduced |
| Compared to pyruvate, glucose is more | reduced |
| So when fermentation is taking place | glycolysis is occuring |
| What process drops the pH in active tissues? | fermentation |
| What is the difference between osmosis and chemiosmosis? Which is involved in ATP production (and how?) | Osmosis is the diffusion of water. Chemiosmosis is diffusion of hydrogen ions through ATP synthase to make ATP |
| Think about a mitochondrion carrying out aerobic respiration. Which compartment is more acidic (i.e. matrix or IMS)? Why? Would that compartment remain acidic if I were to inhibit proton pumping by the ETC? Why or why not? | IMS would be more acidic. No, because eventually all the hydrogens would diffuse back through by ATP synthase. |
| We said that milk spoiling and curdling is the result of lactic acid fermentation. How can lactic acid fermentation curdle milk? | BEcause youre denaturing all the proteins cause you have such a high build up of acids, therefore destroying the proteins, changing their shape making them a solid. |
| What level(s) of structure does Hb have? Take this opportunity to review the levels of protein structure (remember- its never too early to study/review for the final!) | Quaternary |
| We said that oxygen diffuses between blood and tissues. Take this opportunity to go back and review diffusion (oh go ahead- review all the mechanisms of membrane transport)- which mechanism of membrane transport is acting during chemiosmosis?? | Facilitated Diffusion |
| Members of the ETC can be described as integral membrane proteins, and some are proton pumps. Make sure you remember what Òintegral membrane proteinÓ means, and what type of transport a ÒpumpÓ carries out. | Integral Proteins span the whole membrane. Pumps use active transport. |
| Review what the uncoupling protein (UCP1) of brown fat does, and how this contributes to heat production. | UCP1 causes protons to flow back through at a much faster rate, and doesnt use ATP snythase, therefore its converting that stored energy from PMF to heat instead of ATP. |
| Which organisms carry out photosynthesis? | Plants, algae and some bacteria. |
| How do plants use the products of photosynthesis? | Plants use much of this glucose for energy storage, to build leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds, and convert it to cellulose, used in cell walls. |
| In terms of redox, what happens to H2O during photosynthesis? During which set of reactions does this occur? | H2O is oxidized during photosynthesis, it occurs during light dependent reactions. |
| In terms of redox, what happens to CO2 during photosynthesis? During which set of reactions does this occur? | CO2 is reduced during photosynthesis, occurs during calvin cycle (light independent reaction) |
| Which products of the light-dependent reactions are used by the light-independent reactions? Which products of the light-independent reactions are used by the light-dependent reactions? | ATP and NADH, are produced by light dependent, and used by light independent. And NADP and ADP is produced by light independent, and used by light dependent. |
| Why is it important to capture an e- after it has been excited out of a chlorophyll molecule in a photosystem reaction center? (what happens if the excited e- is not captured in its excited state?) | When it pops up its really energized, and you want to capture the electron when it is most excited, because its highly energized. |
| What bioenergetic terms can be used to describe photosynthesis? (e.g. exergonic? catabolic? etc..) | endergonic, and anabolic |
| Which photosystem represents the ÒstartÓ of the light-dependent reactions? | Photosystem II |
| How is the e- that was excited out of chlorophyll (of PSII) replaced? | by using the H2O donor |
| Describe the process of chemiosmosis. Describe it in general terms, then explain when/where it happens in plants and where/when it happens in animals. | Chemiosmosis is the diffusion of hydrogens, through the ATP synthase by proton motive force. In plants it happens in the middle of Photosystem I and photosystem II. In animals it happens at the end of the electron transport chain. |
| Photosynthesis generates reduced organic sugars and O2. How are these used by animals? (be specific with respect to purpose and pathway and where its all occurring) | to carry out cellular respiration |
| Draw and label a chloroplast. Then do the same for a thylakoid, including PSI, PSII, ATP synthase and the PMF. | draw |
| How is the PMF generated across the thylakoid membrane? | From pumping hydrogens in, in between the Photosystem 1 and photosystem 2, |
| Which compartment in the chloroplast has an acidic pH? Which other compartment of another organelle did we discuss that has an acidic pH? (hint: think of cellular respiration) | Thylakoid space. In animals the Inter membrane space. |
| Can the Calvin cycle continue indefinitely in the dark? Why or why not? | Not indefinitely, because you need NADPH and ATP to perform the calvin cycle. But its a light independent reaction, so if you have these products you can continue. |
| What is meant by carbon fixation? Is it a reduction or an oxidation of CO2? | Carbon Fixation is a reduction of CO2. |
| Which enzyme is responsible for the initial carbon fixation step of the Calvin cycle? | Rubisco (RuBP) is responsible for the initial carbon fixation. |
| What are the sources of energy and reducing power for the light-independent reactions? | NADPH is and electron carrier so its the reducing power. ATP is the source of energy. |
| How could you measure ÒphotosynthesisÓ by a plant? Explain what your measurements would reveal in the light and in the dark? (Hint: remember that plants carry out cellular respiration too, so would your measurements be impacted by this?) | How much water is used and how much oxygen is produced. In the light it would reveal how much PS1, PS2, oxygen, water, ATP, NADPH are used, and in dark how much CO2, and how much G3P(sugar) is produced, and NADP+ and ADP. |
| What is the macromolecule in plant cell walls? | cellulose |
| What is the monomer that makes it up? | glucose |
| And where does that monomer come from? | photosynthesis |
| So going from CO2 to glucose is | a reduction |
| Going from CO2 to glucose (C6H12O6) is | anabolic and endergonic |
| If an e- just got excited out a reaction center, the reaction center is now | oxidized |
| What excites the e- out of the rxn center of PSII? | sunlight |
| The oxidation of water generates | O2 |
| The use of the PMF to make ATP is known as | chemiosmosis |
| Where else have we seen chemiosmosis? | oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrion |
| In photosynthesis the e- that reduced NADP+ -> NADPH came from (the original e- donor) | H2O |
| So when WE do the entire process of cellular respiration, what is the initial source of electrons (the very ÒtopÓ electron donor)? What is the final electron acceptor? | Food(glucose), is the initial electron donor. Oxygen is the final electron donor |
| What member of the mitochondrial ETC passes electrons to O2 in our cells? Is that inhibited by CO or HCN? | Complex 4, and thats inhibited by Hydrogen Cyanide poisoning |
| What effect of CO did you look at in our firefighters activity? How does this interfere with aerobic respiration? (be as specific as you can) | It displaces oxygen, letting CO (carbon monoxide) bind to the hemoglobin. |
| Why do people with HCN poisoning have high levels of oxygenated Hb in both the arteries before a tissue capillary bed and in the veins after a tissue capillary bed? (what would you expect to see in normal circumstances?) | Because oxygen is not being delivered, because it completely shuts down complex 4. |
| brown fat showed UCP1 molecules that could punch holes in the inner mitochondrial membrane. What is the effect of ATP production during cellular respiration? What happens to the energy of the PMF in the presence of this uncoupling protein? | The effect on ATP production is that it doesn’t make any ATP, because the UCP1’s are integral membrane proteins, and they just allow hydrogens to flow freely through that protein without using ATP synthase. |
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