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Chapter 7
Human Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Chapter 7 | Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood |
| What happens to children's weight around age 3? | lose babyish roundness, slender athletic appearance |
| How many inches does the average child gain per year in early childhood? | 2 to 3 inches |
| How many pounds does the average child gain per year in early childhood? | 4 to 6 per year |
| What 2 things progress making children stronger? | Muscular and skeletal growth. |
| What happens to bone between 3 and 6 years? | Cartilage turns to bone at a faster rate, bones become harder. |
| Changes of the skeleton and muscles, coordinated by the still maturing brain and nervous system, promote the development of _. | A wide range of motor skills. |
| The increased capacities of the _ and _ systems build physical stamina. | Respiratory, circulatory. |
| The developing _ keeps children healthier. | immune system. |
| What is necessary to support growth and muscle development? | Good nutrition. |
| Name some ways to encourage healthy eating habits. | Parents choose mealtime, don't pressure child to clean plate, serve appropriate portions, easily identifiable foods, finger foods, 1 new dish/meal, child help prepare food, limit snacking, discourage bad foods, don't fight rituals, have family meals. |
| Describe typical physical changes between the ages of 3 and 6. | Grow up, then out, ab muscles develop, arms/legs grow, body catching up to head proportion, muscular/skeletal growth, cartilage turns to bone, bone protects internal organs, motor skills increase, respiratory systems, circulatory systems, immune system |
| Compare boys' and girls' growth patterns between age 3 and 6. | Both gain in weight and height, but boys are bigger than girls. |
| How many hours does the average child sleep per night? | 11 hours. |
| At what age do children began to give up naptime? | Age 5. |
| About one in 10 US parents of preschoolers say their child has a sleep problem such as what? | Frequent night waking or talking quality sleep. |
| What might accidental sleep disturbances be caused by? | Accidental activation of the brain's motor control system, incomplete arousal from a deep sleep, disordered breathing, wrestles leg movements. |
| Can sleep disturbances be associated with separation anxiety? | Yes. |
| What might persistent sleep problems indicate? | Emotional, psychological, neurological condition. |
| Why can be a sign of night terrors? | Child awakens abruptly, early in the night from deep sleep, in a state of agitation, child may scream and sit up in bed, breathing rapidly and staring or thrashing about, quiets down quickly. |
| Describe the state of awakeness of a child that has night terrors. | Child appears to be awake but is not really. |
| True or false: a child that has night terrors will remember everything the next morning. | False, will remember nothing. |
| Who do night terrors usually affect? | Age 3 to 13, boys more often than girls. |
| What are common sleeping problems with young children? | Night terrors, sleepwalking, nightmares. |
| What can cause nightmares? | Stay up too late, eat heavy meal close to bedtime, over excitement, overstimulating television show, scary movie, frightening bedtime story. |
| When do bad dreams or nightmares need to be checked out by a doctor? Why? | Only when frequent or persistent, may signal excessive stress. |
| repeated, involuntary urination at night by children old enough to be expected to have bladder control. | enuresis |
| About what percentage of 5-year-olds, wet the bed regularly? | 10 to 15%. |
| By what age do more than half of children outgrow enuresis without special help? | Age 8. |
| How can a parent help a child go to sleep? | Bedtime routine, no scary or loud TV, no active play, small nightlight, no food, reward good bedtime behavior, send child to bed a little later. |
| How can a parent help a child get back to sleep? | If child gets up, take them back to bed, after nightmare reassure a child, after night terrors do not wake child, help child get enough sleep, walk or carry sleepwalking child back to bed. |
| Children and parents need to be reassured that _ is common and not serious. | Enuresis. |
| Enuresis that persists beyond age 8 to 10 may be a sign of _. | Pour self-concept, other psychological problems. |
| What are some motor skills in 3-year-olds? | Cannot turn or stop suddenly or quickly, can jump distance of 15 to 24 inches, can ascend stairway unaided, alternating feet, can hop irregularly. |
| What are some motor skills and 4 year olds? | Have more effective control of stopping, starting, turning, can jump a distance of 24 to 33 inches, can descend long stairway alternating feet if supported, can hop 4 to 6 steps on one foot. |
| What are some motor skills in 5-year-olds? | Can start, turn, stop effectively in games, can make a running jump of 28 to 36 inches, can descend a long stairway unaided alternating feet, can easily hop a distance of 16 feet. |
| What are 5 common sleep problems and recommendations for handling them? | Night terror-do nothing, sleepwalking-lead child back to bed, nightmare-reassure child, enuresis-do not need to do anything, talk in sleep-do nothing. |
| Brain growth spurt continues until at least age _ when the brain is about _ percent of adult weight. | 3, 90%. |
| At around age 3, myelination of _ is complete. | Pathways for hearing. |
| By age 6, the brain is about _ percent of its peak volume. | 95%. |
| True or false: to help the, normally functioning children of the same age could have as much as a 50% difference in brain volume. | True. |
| What does myelination of the fibers in the corpus calla some do? | Permit more rapid transmission of information, better integration between 2 hemispheres, improve functions, coordinate stress, memory processes, attention, arousal, speech, hearing. |
| From age 3 to 6, what is the most rapid growth? | Frontal areas, regulate planning and organization. |
| From age 6 to 11, what is the most rapid growth? | Area that supports associative thinking, language, spatial relations. |
| What is an aspect of development that brain development effects? | Motor skills. |
| physical skills that involve large muscles | gross motor skills. |
| physical skills that involve small muscles and eye hand coordination | fine motor skills. |
| increasingly complex combinations of skills, which permit a wider or more precise range of movement and more control of the environment | systems of action. |
| preference for using a particular hand. | Handedness. |
| Development of the _ and _ areas of the cerebral cortex permits better coordination between what children want to do and what they can do. | Sensory, motor. |
| What can children do with better gross motor skills? | Run, jump, climb farther and faster. |
| What percent of 4 year olds can throw a ball? Can catch well? | 20%, 30%. |
| Our most children under age 6 ready to take part in an organized sport? | No. |
| When does physical development best flourish? | Active, unstructured free play. |
| Why can children do with better fine motor skills? | Button shirt, draw picture, I hand coordination. |
| Gains in what skills allow young children to take more responsibility for their personal care? | Fine motor skills. |
| When does handedness become evident? | Age 3. |
| About what percent of the population have the right handed gene? | 82%. |
| drawing randomly but in patterns, such as vertical and zigzag lines | scribble. |
| What age group scribbles? | 2-year-olds. |
| drawing circles, squares, rectangles, triangles, crosses, X’s | shapes. |
| drawing shapes, and then beginning to combine the shapes into more complex pictures | designs. |
| What age group draws shapes and designs? | 3-year-olds. |
| drawings that are not abstract, depict real objects | pictorial. |
| What age group draws pictorial pictures? | 4 and 5-year-olds. |
| What reflects the cognitive development of representational ability? | Pictorial drawings, switch from abstract form in design to depicting real objects. |
| Why might parents not ask a child what their drawing is meant to represent? | May stifle energy and freedom. |
| How might children learn how to draw? | Brain maturation, imitate the way a parent draws, looking at and talking about other children drawings. |
| Summarize changes in the brain during childhood and their possible effects. | Brain finishes growing, myelination of fibers, improves senses, memory, attention, speech, hearing, thinking, language |
| Distinguish between gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Give examples of each type that improved during early childhood. | Gross motor skills-large muscles, run, jump, climb; fine motor skills-small muscles, button shirts, draw pictures |
| How is brain functioning related to motor skills and handedness? | Depending on which side of the brain is dominant, a child will be left-handed or right-handed. As brain develops, motor skills can develop |
| In light of other research, evaluate Kellogg’s findings on young children’s drawing skills. | Less parental involvement in a child’s drawing is not necessarily better. Ex. Chinese |
| How do children's bodies and brains change between ages 3 and 6? | They mature and get larger, allowing the child to do more |
| What sleep problems are common in early childhood? | Night terrors, sleepwalking, nightmares, talking in sleep, enuresis |
| What motor achievements are common in early childhood? | Ability to move such as turning and stopping, jumping distance, ascending and descending stairs, hopping distance. |
| When children are most likely to be overweight? | Low income families. |
| Worldwide, about how many children under age 5 are obese? | Estimated 22 million. |
| Is obesity hereditary or environmental? | Some hereditary, but mostly environmental. |
| What causes excessive weight gain? | High caloric intake, lack of exercise. |
| True or false: overweight children tend to become obese adults. | True. |
| How can obesity be prevented? | Parents control child's diet, server appropriate portions, do not force child to clean plate, more physical activity, less TV. |
| _ is an underlying cause in more than half of all deaths before age 5. | Undernutrition. |
| In 2005 what percent of children under 18 lived in food insecure households? | 17%. |
| What can undernutrition affect? | Growth, physical well-being, cognitive development, psychosocial development, poorer verbal skills, spatial abilities, reading skills, scholastic ability, neuropsychological performance. |
| In the US what causes the most deaths of preschoolers? | Injuries in the household. |
| What kind of household injuries caused death of preschoolers? | Fire, drowning in bathtubs, suffocation, poisoning, false, everyday medications, vitamins, unintentional ingestion of prescription and over-the-counter medicine. |
| What are ways to improve child safety? | Car seats, keep dangerous products out of reach, helmets, safe storage of firearms, child proof medicine bottles. |
| Summarize obesity trends among preschoolers. | About 12% of children are very overweight, more likely to be overweight if coming from a low income family, environment likely to make child heavy |
| Explain why being overweight is a concern in early childhood. | Increases likelihood of obesity in adulthood |
| Identify effects related to undernutrition and factors that may influence the long-term outcome. | Poorer health, overall, can decrease IQ |
| Compare the health status of young children in developed and developing countries. | Children in developed countries are healthier than children in developing countries |
| Tell where and how young children are most likely to be injured. | In the home, by a fire, drowning, suffocation, poisoning, falls. |
| The lower a family’s _, the greater a child's risks of injury, illness, death. | SES. |
| Pour children are more likely than other children to have why? | Chronic conditions, activity limitations, no health insurance, unmet medical and dental needs. |
| Who has the least access to quality health care? | Black children, Latino children, poor or near poor. |
| At the end of 2004 how many children were enrolled in Medicaid? | 3.9 million. |
| About how many children are homeless? | 1.35 million children. |
| What does being homeless put a child at risk for? | Heightened risk for disease, depression, academic problems, behavioral problems. |
| What kind of families to homeless children come from? | Single mothers, in their 20’s, fleeing domestic violence. |
| In 2007, how many children died before the age of 5? | 10,000,000. |
| Where do most child deaths under the age of 5 occur? | Poorer, Royal regions of developing countries, sub-Saharan Africa, southeast Asia. |
| What are the 4 major causes of death of children under 5 worldwide? | Pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, neonatal sepsis, what is an underlying cause of death of children under age 5? |
| In some African countries, _ is responsible for as many as 6 out of 10 child deaths. | HIV/AIDS. |
| What is a preventable cause of childhood illness and death? | Parental smoking in the home and car. |
| Children exposed to parental smoke are at an increased risk of what? | Respiratory infections, bronchitis, pneumonia, ear problems, asthma, slowed lung growth. |
| What 4 environmental factors put a child at risk of death? | Exposure to smoking, air pollution, pesticides, lead. |
| What kind of childhood problems can environmental contaminants and air pollution cause? | Chronic respiratory disease, childhood cancer, neurological disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, mental retardation. |
| Where can children get elevated concentrations of what? | Contaminated food or water, airborne industrial waste, putting contaminated fingers in the mouth, and hailing dust, playing with paint chips from toys. |
| What kind of childhood problems can lead poisoning cause? | Cognitive development, irreversible neurological problems, behavioral problems, headaches, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, agitation, lethargy, vomiting, stupor, compulsions. |
| About what percent of US children live in households with deteriorating lead paint? | 25%. |
| What are some environmental influences that endanger children's health and development? | SES, race, homelessness, exposure to smoke, air pollution, pesticides, lead. |
| What are 7 cognitive advances during early childhood? | Use of symbols, understanding of identities, understanding of cause and effect, ability to classify, understanding of number, empathy, theory of mind. |
| What are the major health and safety risks for young children? | Obesity, undernutrition, death, accidental injury, homelessness, exposure to smoking, air pollution, pesticides, lead, illness. |
| in Piaget's theory, the 2nd major stage of cognitive development, in which symbolic thinking expends that children cannot yet use logic | preoperational stage. |
| At what age does the preoperational stage occur? | Approximately 2 to 7 years old. |
| What is the preoperational stage characterized by? | Expansion in the use of symbolic thought, representational ability. |
| What are 7 immature aspects of preoperational thought in early childhood? | Centration, irreversibility, focus on states rather than transformations, transductive reasoning, egocentrism, animism, inability to distinguish appearance from reality. |
| Piaget's term for ability to use mental representations (words, numbers or images) to which a child has attached meaning | symbolic function. |
| play involving imaginary people and situations | pretend play. |
| What are 3 other names for pretend play? | Fantasy play, dramatic play, imaginative play. |
| What are infants is in symbolic thought accompanied by? | Growing understanding of space, causality, identities, categorization, number. |
| What is an example of when a child no longer needs a sensory cue to think about something? | Child asks for a scream without seeing open freezer door or television commercial, seeks something out that they remember. |
| Why could people not do without symbols? | Communicate verbally, make change, read maps, treasured photos of loved ones. |
| What do symbols help children do? | Remember and think about things that are not physically present. |
| mental representation of a previously observed event, more robust after 18 months | deferred imitation. |
| uses a system of symbols (words) to communicate | language. |
| When do most children reliably grasp of the relationships between pictures, maps, scale models and the objects or spaces they represent? | At least age 3. |
| Piaget's term for a preoperational child's tendency to mentally linked particular phenomenon, whether or not, there is logically a causal relationship. | Transduction. |
| tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive | animism. |
| The concept that people and many things are basically the same even if the change in form, size or appearance | identities. |
| Why concept underlies the emergence of self concept? | Identities. |
| Requires a child to identify similarities and differences | categorization or classification. |
| By age 4, many children can classify by _ criteria. What is an example? | 2, good/bad, nice/main, color/shape. |
| True or false: one type of categorization is the ability to distinguish living from nonliving things. | True. |
| concept of comparing quantities | ordinality. |
| When does order now let he seemed to begin? | Around 12 to 18 months. |
| By age _, most children have words for comparing quantities. | 4. |
| when asked to count 6 items, children younger than 3 ½ tend to recite the number-names, but not to say how many items there are altogether. | cardinality. |
| By each 5 most children can count to _. | 20 or more. |
| basic level of number skills, including counting, number knowledge (ordinality), number transformation, estimation, number patterns. | number sense. |
| Why can affect how rapidly children advanced in math? | SES, preschool experience. |
| In Piaget's theory, the tendency of preoperational children to focus on one aspect of the situation and neglect others | centration. |
| In Piaget's terminology, to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation. | decenter. |
| Piaget's term for inability to consider another persons’ point of view, a characteristic of young children's thought | egocentrism. |
| Summarize a preschool child’s understanding of symbols. | Can use the words to symbolize other things |
| Summarize a preschool child’s understanding of space. | Preschoolers are able to use simple maps, the order they grow the more so they are able to use the symbols |
| Summarize a preschool child’s understanding of causality. | Do not grasp cause and effect, relate two events close in time to be a causal relationship |
| Summarize a preschool child’s understanding of identities. | Are usually able to distinguish between what is alive and inanimate, sometimes get them confused |
| Summarize a preschool child’s understanding of categorization. | Are able to categorize by two criteria, such as bad/good, nice/main |
| Summarize a preschool child’s understanding of numbers. | Can compare quantities but not do math |
| What are typical cognitive advances of preschool children's thinking? | Use of symbols, understanding of identities, understanding of cause and effect, ability to classify, understanding of number, empathy, theory of mind. |
| What are typical immature aspects of preschool children's thinking? | Centration, irreversibility, focus on states rather than transformations, transductive reasoning, egocentrism, animism, inability to distinguish appearance from reality. |
| According to Piaget, preschoolers come to illogical conclusions because they cannot _, which means _. | Decenter, think about several aspects of a situation at one time. |
| True or false: centration can limit young children's thinking about social as well as physical relationships. | True. |
| True or false: egocentrism is not a form of centration. | False. |
| According to Piaget, young children's center so much on their _ that they cannot _. | Point of view, take in another's. |
| What did Piaget design to study egocentrism and what is it? | Three Mountain Task, children sat on opposite side of table from doll, 3 mountains in the middle, the child could not see from doll's point of view. |
| Young children may show egocentrism primarily in, what kind of situations? | Situations from their own immediate experience. |
| Piaget's term for awareness that two objects that are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object | conservation. |
| Piaget's term for a preoperational child's failure to understand that an operation could go in two or more directions | irreversibility. |
| The failure to understand conservation is a classic example of why? | Centration. |
| the fact that 2 things that are equal remains so if their appearance is altered as long as nothing is added or taken away | conservation. |
| When do children fully grasp the principle of conservation? | Concrete operational stage. |
| _ Children cannot consider height and width at the same time. | Preoperational. |
| These children focus on successive states. | Focus, scratch that preoperational children. |
| How does centration limit preoperational thought? | Child cannot focus on multiple aspects of the situation at one time |
| Discuss research that challenges Piaget's views on egocentrism in early childhood. | In an experiment similar to the 3 Mountain task, except using less abstract ways and more familiar thinking for children, an experimenter got the opposite results. |
| Give several reasons preoperational children have difficulty with observation. | Irreversibility, cannot consider height and width at the same time, focus on successive states. |
| Awareness and understanding of mental processes | theory of mind. |
| It was the 1st person to investigate a child's theory of mind? | Piaget. |
| Why has more recent research indicated that children younger than 6 understand children's knowledge about mental processes than what Piaget found? | Methodology, Piaget's questions were abstract |
| What did Piaget expect children to be able to do when talking about theory of mind? | Put their understanding into words. |
| How do contemporary researchers observed children in research and theory of mind? | Observe children and everyday activities, give concrete examples. |
| Between the ages of 3 and 5, what do children come to understand about thinking? | Inside the mind, real or imaginary, can't think of one thing while doing something else, person that covers eyes and ears can think about objects, looks pensive is probably thinking, thinking is different from seeing/talking/touching/knowing. |
| What do you preschoolers generally believe about mental activity? | Starts and stops. |
| At what age do children know that the mind is continuously active? | Middle childhood. |
| What are 2 things that preschoolers have little or no awareness of? | People think in words, “talk to themselves”, think while they are looking, listening, reading, talking. |
| What do preschoolers believe about dreaming? | Can dream anything they want |
| What do 5-year-olds recognize about dreaming? | Recognize that experiences, emotions, thoughts can affect content of dreams. |
| What do 11-year-olds recognize about dreaming? | Cannot control their dreams. |
| Recognition that others have mental states | social cognition. |
| What does social cognition, a company? | Decline of egocentrism, development of empathy. |
| The understanding that _ flows from the realization that people hold mental representations of reality, which can sometimes be wrong. | people can hold false beliefs. |
| True or false: 3-year-olds understand that people can hold false beliefs. | False. |
| Children near their 4th birthday did better in recognizing false beliefs when they did why? | Use gestures rather than words. |
| What might a 3-year-olds failure to recognize false beliefs stem from? | Egocentric thinking. |
| At what age do children realize that 2 people who see or hear the same thing Mae interpreted differently? | 86. |
| an effort to plant a false belief in someone else's mind | deception. |
| When is it believed that children become capable of deception? | Some believe age 2 or 3, others at 4 or 5. |
| According to Piaget at what age do children begin to understand the distinction between what seems to be and what is? What have studies found? | Age 5 or 6, abilities beginning to emerge before age 4. |
| When do children learn to distinguish between real and imagined events? | Between 18 months and 3 years. |
| What is it hard to distinguish when questioning children about pretend objects? | Whether they are giving answers or keeping up the pretense. |
| _ in children ages 3 and older does not seem to stem from confusion between reality and fantasy. | Magical thinking. |
| a way to explain events that do not seem to have obvious realistic explanations | magical thinking. |
| When does magical thinking tend to decline? | Near the end of the preschool period. |
| What are several aspects of theory of mind? | Knowledge about thinking and mental states, false believes in deception, distinguishing between appearance and reality, distinguishing between fantasy and reality. |
| What causes theory of mind abilities to develop? | Brain maturation, general improvement in cognition, social competence, language development, good social skills |
| What are 3 things that can cause bilingual children to have better theory of mind abilities than children who only speak one language? | Know that linguistically idea or object can be represented in more than one way, matching languages makes them more aware of others mental states, better attention control. |
| Describe changes between ages 3 and 6 in children's knowledge about the way their minds work. | They learn that they think, can't think inside their heads, can imagine things, realize people can be wrong, ability to distinguish between appearance and reality, ability to distinguish between fantasy and reality. |
| Identify influences on children's knowledge about how the mind works. | Brain maturation, general improvements in cognition, social competence, language development, encouragement of pretend play, talking about it, talk about feelings, learning more than 1 language. |
| process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval | encoding. |
| retention of information in memory for future use | storage. |
| process by which information is assessed or recalled from memory storage | retrieval. |
| What improves in children's minds in early childhood? | Attention, speed and efficiency with which they process information, long-lasting memories, ability to recall events. |
| Information processing theorists think of a memory as a filing system that has 3 steps called what? | Encoding, storage, retrieval. |
| Give an example of encoding in memory (filing process). | Putting information into a folder to be filed in memory, attaches a label. |
| Give an example of storage in memory (filing process). | Putting the folder into the filing cabinet. |
| Give an example of retrieval in memory (filing process). | Search for the file and take it out. |
| Difficulty in encoding, storage or retrieval can interfere with what? | Efficiency. |
| Information processing models depict the brain as containing, what 3 storehouses? | Sensory memory, working memory, long-term memory. |
| initial, brief, temporary storage of sensory information | sensory memory. |
| short-term storage of information being actively processed | working memory. |
| conscious control of thoughts, emotions and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems | executive function. |
| element of working memory that controls the processing of information | central executive. |
| storage are virtually unlimited capacity to hold information for long periods | long-term memory. |
| ability to identify a previously encountered stimulus | recognition. |
| ability to reproduce material from memory | recall. |
| Without what memory process do sensory memories fade quickly? | Encoding. |
| temporary holding tank for incoming sensory information | sensory memory. |
| What is another name for working memory? | Short-term memory. |
| Where has brain imaging found short-term memory to be at in the brain? | Prefrontal cortex, a large portion of frontal lobe, directly behind forehead. |
| What is efficiency of working memory limited by? | Capacity. |
| How many scrambled numbers can a 4-year-old usually remember? | 2 digits. |
| How many scrambled numbers can a 12-year-old usually remember? | 6 digits. |
| What does the growth of working memory permit? | Executive function. |
| What does executive function enable children to do? | Plan and carry out goal directed mental activity. |
| What do changes in executive function between ages of 2 and 5 enable children to do? | Make up and use complex rules for problem solving. |
| What orders information encoded for transfer to long-term memory? | Central executive. |
| What jobs does the central executive do? | Orders information encoded for transfer, retrieves information from long-term memory, expand capacity of working memory by moving information into subsystems. |
| What are the 2 types of retrieval? | Recognition and recall. |
| Give an example of recognition memory. | Picked up a missing the and from a lost and found box. |
| In early childhood, what kind of events do young children remember? | Ones that make a strong impression. |
| What are the 3 types of childhood memory? | Generic, episodic, autobiographical. |
| memory that produces scripts of familiar routines to guide behavior | generic memory. |
| general remembered outline of a familiar, repeated event, used to guide behavior | script. |
| long-term memory of specific experiences or events link to time and place | episodic memory. |
| memory of specific events in one's life | autobiographical memory. |
| At what age do generic memories begin? | About age 2. |
| What does generic memory produce? | Script. |
| Give an example of a generic memory. | Right bus to school, have lunch at grandma's house. |
| What does generic memory help children to do? | Know what to expect, how to act. |
| Refers to awareness of having experienced a particular event or episode at a specific time and place | episodic memory. |
| Are episodic memories temporary or permanent? | Temporary. |
| How can an episodic memory last longer? How long will it last? | Recur several times, transferred to generic memory, only last a few weeks or months. |
| Windows autobiographical memory generally emerge? | Age 3 to 4. |
| What might be an explanation for the slow arrival of autobiographical memory? | Children cannot store it events pertaining to their own lives until they develop a concept of self. |
| Why is the emergence of language important to memories? | Enables child to share memories and organize them into personal narratives. |
| model, based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which proposes that children construct autobiographical memories through conversation with adults about shared events | social interaction model. |
| Why do some early memories last longer and more clearly than others? | Uniqueness of event, emotional impact, child active participation, self-awareness, the way adults talk with a child about shared experiences. |
| Do preschoolers tend to remember things they did or saw better? | Did. |
| model which holds that children collaboratively construct autobiographical memories with parents or other adults as they talk about shared events | social interaction model. |
| What styles of talking can parents have when talking with children about shared experiences? | Low elaborative style, high elaborative style. |
| When a child gets stuck on memory recall, adults with a _ style repeat their own previous statements or questions. | Low elaborative style. |
| A parent with a _ style would ask a question that elicits more information. | High elaborative style. |
| Which recall style recalled richer memories? | High elaborative style. |
| What gender do mothers tend to be more elaborative with? | Girls. |
| How does elaborative talk promote autobiographical memory? | Provide verbal labels for aspects of event, give it an orderly, comprehensible structure, interpret past events, build a sense of self as continuous and time, learn perspectives may differ on the same experience. |
| What memory abilities expand in early childhood? | Encoding, storage, retrieval, different types of memory, recognition, recall, retention. |
| Identify the 3 storehouses of early memories. | Sensory memory, working memory, long-term memory |
| Identified 3 types of early memories. | Generic memory, episodic memory, autobiographical memory |
| Identify 4 factors that affect memory retention. | Uniqueness of event, emotional impact, child's participation, talking about the experience |
| Discuss how social interaction influences memory. | Low elaborative style-repeat previous statement or question, high elaborative style-ask question that brings out more information |
| Discuss how culture influences memory. | Western cultures tend to be more elaborative, non-Western cultures ask leading questions, leaving little for a child to add. |
| What is a factor that may affect the strength of early cognitive skills? | Intelligence. |
| What are 2 ways intelligence as measured? | Traditional psychometric tests, newer tests of cognitive potential. |
| What are the 2 most commonly used individual test for preschoolers? | Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. |
| individual intelligence test for ages 2 and up used to measure fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory | Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. |
| individual intelligence test for children ages 2 ½ to 7 that yield to verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score | Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. |
| Describe what children do in the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. | Ages 2 and up, take 45 to 60 minutes, child defines words, strings beads, build with blocks, identify missing parts of picture, trace maze, show understanding of numbers. |
| What is a child's score in the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales supposed to measure? | Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual and spatial processing, working memory. |
| ability to solve abstract or novel problems | fluid reasoning. |
| Describe the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. | Individual test, takes 30 to 60 minutes, levels for ages 2 ½ to 4 and 4 to 7. |
| What scores does the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence test provide? | Separate verbal and performance scores as well as combined score, verbal and nonverbal fluid reasoning, receptive versus expressive vocabulary, processing speed. |
| What has the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence also been validated for? | Special populations, children with intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, language disorders, autistic disorders. |
| What is the common misconception about IQ scores? | Represent a fixed quantity of inborn intelligence. |
| What is an IQ score? | How well a child can do certain tasks at a certain time in comparison with others of the same age. |
| What can be some influences on intelligence? | Heredity, environment, mentally demanding games, socioeconomic status, family income, achievement and preschool years. |
| Family economic circumstances can exert a powerful influence, not so much in themselves as in the way they affect what other factors? | Health, stress, parenting practices, atmosphere in the home. |
| Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help | zone of proximal development. |
| temporary support to help a child master a task | scaffolding. |
| According to Vygotsky, children learn by internalizing the results of what? | Interactions with adults. |
| _ is the most effective way in helping children cross the zone of proximal development. | Interactive learning. |
| The gap between what children can already do and what they are not quite ready to accomplish themselves | zone of proximal development. |
| What can the zone of proximal development be assessed by? | Dynamic test. |
| Dynamic tests provide a better measure of children's intellectual potential than what? | Traditional psychometric tests. |
| _ measure , what children have already mastered. | Traditional psychometric tests. |
| What can help guide a child's cognitive progress? | Scaffolding. |
| Describe the two individual intelligence tests for preschoolers. | Standford-Binet Intelligence Scales- measures fluid/quantitative reasoning, knowledge, visual-spatial processing and working memory; Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-yields verbal, performance, combined scores. |
| Discuss the relationship between socioeconomic status and IQ. | SES can affect stress, health, parenting practice, environment of home; better SES tends to have better IQ. |
| How does a test score on the zone of proximal development differ from a psychometric test score? | Measures, what a child can do alone and what they can do with help, not what they have already mastered (psychometric test). |
| How is preschoolers’ intelligence measured? | With a traditional psychometric test (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence) or a newer test (zone of proximal development). |
| What are some influences on preschoolers’ intelligence? | Heredity, environment, socioeconomic status, income. |
| Process by which a child absorbs the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation | fast mapping. |
| What helps children express their unique view of the world? | Growing facility with language. |
| At age 3, how many words does the average child know and use? | 900 to 1000 words. |
| By age 6, how many words does the average child use? How many do they understand? | 2,600 words, 20,000 words. |
| By high school how many what words does the average child know and use? | 80,000. |
| allows a child to pick up the approximate meaning of a new word after hearing it only once or twice in conversation | fast mapping. |
| a rapid expansion of vocabulary | fast mapping. |
| How is it likely that fast mapping works? | Children form quick hypothesis about word, refined with further exposure and usage, drawl on what they know about rules of words. |
| How does language become increasingly sophisticated during early childhood? | Children combines syllables and words, words into sentences. |
| Describe the average 3-year-old’s sentence. | Short, simple, declarative, amid articles such as a and the, include pronouns, adjectives, prepositions. |
| Describe the average 4 year-old’s sentence. | 4 to 5 words, declarative, negative, interrogators, imperative, can be complex and multi-clause if parents use such sentences, long run-on narratives. |
| Give an example of how a 4-year-old’s comprehension of words may be immature. | Parent says you may watch TV after you pick up your toys, child understands he can 1st watch television then pick up toys. |
| At what age does a child speech become adult why? | 85 to 7. |
| Describe the average 5 to 7-year-old’s sentence. | Longer, more complicated, conjunctions, prepositions, articles come pounding complex, all parts of speech, fluent, comprehensible, grammatical, need fine points of language. |
| Why do young children often make errors in speaking? | Have not yet learned exceptions to rules. |
| the practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes | pragmatics. |
| speech intended to be understood by a listener | social speech. |
| What 3 things do children have to learn to become more competent in pragmatics? | Vocabulary, syntax, grammar. |
| What does someone need to know to be competent in pragmatics? | How to ask for things, how to tell a story, how to begin and continue a conversation, adjust comments to listeners perspective. |
| When can a 5-year-old child stick to a conversational topic for about a dozen turns? | If they are comfortable with their partner, if the topic is one they know and care about. |
| talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others | private speech. |
| What accounts for about half of what 4 to 10-year-old children say? | Private speech. |
| What did Piaget see private speech as? | Cognitive immaturity. |
| What did Vygotsky see private speech as? | Special form of communication, conversation with self. |
| Does it research tend to support Piaget's or Vygotsky’s view of private speech? | Vygotsky’s. |
| According to Vygotsky, what is private speech stimulated by? | Social experience, self-regulation. |
| When does private speech tend to increase? | Child trying to solve problems, perform difficult task. |
| What percent of preschool children show language and speech delays? | 5 to 8%. |
| What may be associated with speech and language delays? | Hearing problems, head and facial abnormalities, premature birth, family history, socioeconomic factors, other developmental delays, heredity, problem with fast mapping. |
| Are boys or girls more likely to be late talkers? | Boys. |
| preschoolers development of skills, knowledge and attitudes that underlie reading and writing | emergent literacy. |
| What does emergent literacy refer to? | Pre-reading skills. |
| What are the 2 types of pre-reading skills? | 1) oral development skills-vocabulary, syntax, narrative structure, understanding that language is used to communicate; 2) specific phonological skills-linking letters with the sounds that hope into coding the printed word. |
| What appears to be critically dependent on phonological skills? | Word recognition. |
| What appears to be dependent upon oral language skills? | Reading comprehension. |
| True or false: social interaction is an important factor in literacy development. | True. |
| What are ways for children to become better readers and writers during preschool years? | Parents provide conversational challenges, use rich vocabulary, centered dinner-table talk on day’s activities, remember past events, questions on why people do things, how things work. |
| As children learn the skills they will need to translate the written word into speech, they also learned that writing can express what? | Ideas, thoughts and feelings. |
| What is one of the most effective pathways to literacy? | Reading to children. |
| What can motivate a child to learn to read? | Being read to. |
| Trace normal progress in a 3 to 6-year-olds vocabulary abilities. | Rapidly learn language with fast mapping, know 80,000 words by the time entering high school |
| Trace normal progress in a 3 to 6-year-olds grammar abilities. | Gradually learn grammar, reach adult like speech by age 5 to 7, but still learn thereafter |
| Trace normal progress in a 3 to 6-year-olds syntax abilities. | Gradually learn syntax, reach adult like speech by age 5 to 7, but still learn thereafter |
| Trace normal progress in a 3 to 6-year-olds conversational abilities. | Talk to themselves (private speech) and talk to others, slowly able to talk better |
| Give reasons why children use private speech. | To solve problems, perform difficult tasks, self-regulation |
| Discuss possible causes of delayed language development. | hearing problem, head or facial abnormality, family history, developmental delay, SES factors |
| Discuss possible consequences of delayed language development. | May grow out of it, may cause cognitive, social, emotional consequences |
| Discuss possible treatment of delayed language development. | May grow out of it, speech or language therapy |
| Identify factors that promote preparation for literacy. | Parent reads to child, parent uses rich vocabulary, dinner-table talk on day’s activities, remember past events, ask questions |
| How does language improve during early childhood? | Children gain skills in vocabulary, grammar, syntax, pragmatics, social speech, private speech. |
| What happens when language development is delayed? | Children can grow out of it were may have problems if not assisted with speech or language therapy, consequences can be cognitive, social, emotional. |
| Going to preschool is an important step, widening a child's _. | physical, cognitive and social environment. |
| In 2000 to approximately what percent of children attended preschool? | 54%. |
| What kind of philosophy do Western countries follow in regards to preschool? | Child centered. |
| What is a child centered philosophy? | Stressing social and emotional growth in line with young children's developmental needs. |
| What do defenders of the developmental approach maintain about academically oriented preschool programs? | Neglect young children's needs for exploration and free play, too much teacher initiated instruction may interfere with self initiated learning. |
| What type of preschool is best for children? | US studies support the child centered, developmental approach. |
| What are 3 types of preschool classrooms? | Child initiated, academically directed, middle of the road. |
| Describe benefits of child initiated programs. | Children actively direct their own learning, excel in basic academic skills, more advanced motor skills, better behavioral and communicative skills then middle of the road group. |
| Which of the 3 types of styles of preschool classrooms seems to be the best approach? | Child centered approach. |
| What purposes does early childhood education serve? | prepare children for schooling, give them a head start |
| How do children make the transition to kindergarten? | in preschool and pre-kindergarten |
| awareness and understanding of mental processes | theory of mind |
| _ was the first person to investigate "theory of mind." | Piaget |
| When does children's knowledge about mental processes grow? | age 2-5 |
| Why might Piaget have gotten different answers about theory of mind than current research has found? | because Piaget used abstract thinking, kids might not have been able to put their understanding into words |
| How do contemporary researchers observe children? | in everyday activities, give them concrete examples |
| Between the ages of 3 and 5, what are some things children come to understand about thinking and mental states? | thinking happens inside mind, can be real or imaginary, can think of 1 thing while doing something else, person with eyes and ears covered can think about other things, person looks pensive probably thinking, thinking different from see/talk/touch/know |
| What do preschoolers generally think about mental activity? | starts and stops |
| At what age to children know that the mind is continuously active? | middle childhood |
| What do preschoolers have little awareness of in regards to mental activity? | people think in words, "talk to themselves," think while look, listen, read, talk |
| What do 5 years olds recognize can affect the content of dreams? | experience, emotion, knowledge, thoughts |
| At age 11, what do children realize about their dreams? | cannot control dreams |
| What do preschoolers think about controlling their dreams? | can completely control them |
| the recognition that others have mental states | social cognition |
| What does social cognition accompany? | decline of egocentrism, development of empathy |
| What flows from the realization that people hold mental representations of reality, which can sometimes be wrong? | understanding that people can hold false beliefs |
| What does a three year old lack understanding of? | people can hold false beliefs |
| At what age do children begin to better recognize false beliefs? | near their fourth birthday |
| An estimated _ out of _ children in poor urban areas enter school poorly prepared to learn. | 2 out of 3 |
| When did large scale programs develop to help children prepare for school? | 1960's |
| What is Project Head Start? What does it teach? | compensatory preschool for low income children, enhance cognitive skills, improve physical health, foster self confidence, social skills. |
| What does Project Head Start provide? | medical, dental, mental healthcare, social services, at least one hot meal per day |
| What kind of families do the Project Head Start children come from? | (1 out of 3) non-English speaking, single mothers |
| What benefits does Project Head Start give children? | improves school readiness, better cognitive and language skills, do better in school, vocabulary, letter recognition, early writing, early mathematics, social skills |
| With Project Head Start, gains are closely related to what? | parental involvement |
| What long term benefits does Project Head Start give children? | less likely to-be placed in special education, repeat a grade, become juvenile delinquent, become pregnant in teens; more likely to-finish high school |
| What was kindergarten originally meant for? | transition between relative freedom of home and structure of "real school" |
| What has kindergarten become like? How? | like first grade, less self-chosen activities, more time on worksheets and preparing to read |
| How has traditional kindergarten changed since the 1970's? | becoming full day, single parents or dual earner households, children have experience preschool, prekindergarten, ready for more vigorous curriculum. |
| Do children learn more in full day kindergarten? | They tend to be further ahead until about third grade, then it evens out. |
| What factors affect a child's readiness for kindergarten? | preparation child receives before, advantaged home environment, emotional adjustment, social adjustment |
| What test scores show a correlation between kindergarten and academic success in fifth grade? Which do not? | math, reading |
| What do kindergarten teachers say is more important than knowing the alphabet and being able to count to 20? | ability to sit still, follow directions, wait one's turn, regulate own learning |
| Has a correlation been found between kindergarten behavior and later success in school? | not much |
| How can adjustment to kindergarten be eased? | enable parents and preschoolers to visit before start, shorten school days early in year, teachers make home visits, parent orientation session, keep parents informed |
| The blossoming physical and cognitive skills of early childhood affect what? | child's self image, child's emotional adjustment, how well child gets along at home and with schoolmates |
| Compare goals and effectiveness of varying types of preschool programs. | child initaited-most effective, child directs learning, more motor skills; academically directed-teach children; middle of the road-blends two approaches, least effective |
| Assess the benefits of compensatory preschool education. | Give children a better head start, better grades later on in school, excellent affect on long term situations |
| Discuss factors that affect adjustment to kindergarten. | preparation, home environment, emotional adjustment, social adjustment |
| How do children's bodies change between ages 3 and 6? | physical growth continues but more slowly, boys are taller/heavier/more muscular than girls, internal body systems maturing |
| True or false: sleep patterns change during early childhood. | true |
| What can sleep patterns be affected by? | cultural expectations |
| How do children's brains change between ages 3 and 6? | development continues steadily throughout childhood, affects motor development |
| What two muscle skills do children age 3 to 6 progress rapidly in? What does that develop? | gross and fine motor skills, more complex systems of action |
| What is handedness usually evident by? What does it reflect? | evident by age 3, dominance of the opposite hemisphere of the brain. |
| What sleep problems are common between ages 3 and 6? | sleepwalking, sleep terrors, nightmares, bed wetting |
| How does bed-wetting stop? | outgrown, usually without special help |
| What can persistent sleep problems indicate? | emotional disturbances |
| What motor achievements are common between ages 3 and 6? | Ability to run, jump, climb, budding shirts, drawing pictures, small muscle coordination, large muscle coordination |
| According to Kellogg's research, stages of art production, which reflect brain development and fine motor coordination, are what 4 stages? | Scribbling, shaped, design, pictorial. |
| What are the major health and safety risks for young children? | Obesity, undernutrition, accidents in the home, death, environmental factors, exposure to poverty, homelessness, smoking, air pollution, pesticides, lead poisoning; developing countries-preventable disease. |
| What effects can lead poisoning have? | Physical, cognitive, behavioral. |
| What 2 things do children in the preoperational stage show? | Several important advances, some immature aspects of thought. |
| What does symbolic function enable children to do? | Reflect on people, objects, events that are not physically present |
| What is symbolic function shown in? | Deferred imitation, pretend play, language. |
| What does symbolic development hell preoperational children do? | Make more accurate judgments on spatial relationships, link cause and effect with regard to familiar situations, understand the concept of identity, categorize, compare quantities, understand principals accounting. |
| Preoperational children appear to be less _ than Piaget thought. | Egocentric. |
| _ keeps preoperational children from understanding principals of operation. | Centration. |
| What is a preoperational child's logic limited by? | irreversibility, focus on states rather than transformations. |
| Theory of mind, which develops markedly between ages 3 and 5, includes why? | Awareness of a child’s own thought processes, social cognition, understanding that people can hold false beliefs, ability to deceive, ability to distinguish appearance from reality, ability to distinguish fantasy from reality. |
| What can affect individual differences and theory of mind development? | Maturation and environmental influences. |
| What are typical cognitive advances of preschool children's thinking? | Use of symbols, understanding of identities, understanding of cause and effect, ability to classify, understanding of number, empathy, theory of mind |
| What are typical immature aspects of preschool children's thinking? | Centration, irreversibility, focus on states rather than transformations, transductive reasoning, egocentrism, animism, inability to distinguish appearance from reality. |
| Information processing models describe what 3 steps in memory? | Encoding, storage, retrieval. |
| What kind of memory shows little change with age? | Sensory memory. |
| What kind of memory capacity greatly increases with age? | Working memory. |
| What controls the flow of information to and from the long-term memory? | Central executive. |
| At all ages, which kind of memory is better: recognition or recall? | Recognition, increases during early childhood. |
| Early episodic memory is only _; it fades or is _. | Temporary, transferred to generic memory. |
| When does autobiographical memory typically begin? What might it be related to? | Age 3 or 4, self recognition and language development. |
| According to the social interaction model, children and adults Coke construct autobiographical memories by talking about what? | Shared memories. |
| What are children most likely to remember? What can affect the memory formation? | Unusual activities they participate in, the way adults talk about events with children. |
| What memory abilities expand in early childhood? | Ability to recall and recognize, memory processing, autobiographical memory. |
| How is preschoolers’ intelligence measured? | Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Wechler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence |
| What are some influences on preschoolers’ intelligence? | Home environment, SES |
| In what countries have intelligence test scores risen? | Industrialized. |
| Newer tests based on Vygotsky’s concept of _ indicate immediate potential for achievement. | Zone of proximal development. |
| Test such as the zone of proximal development, combined with scaffolding can help parents and teachers do what? | Guide children's progress. |
| How does language improve during early childhood? | Vocabulary increases, grammar, syntax, pragmatics. |
| What might private speech aid in? | Shift to self-regulation. |
| What happens when language development is delayed? | May have serious cognitive, social, emotional consequences. |
| What can promote emergent literacy? | Interaction with adults. |
| The _ content of early childhood education programs in the US has increased, but study support a _ approach. | Academic, child centered. |
| What purposes does early childhood education serve? | Positive outcomes, assist children in learning, socializing. |
| What is the benefit of compensatory preschool programs? | Positive outcomes, participant’s performances approaching national norms, early start may have better results. |
| How do children make the transition to kindergarten? | Emotional, social adjustment, prekindergarten preparation. |
| _ of preschool education very across cultures. | Goals. |
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