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Botany Exam 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Botany | Botany is the study of plants (plant biology) |
| Plant Anatomy and Morphology | -Cellular components, types of cells and organization into plant tissue. Solve crimes (certain plants are found only in certain areas, can tell where a victim is |
| Paleobotany | (part of archaeology) Plant fossils, pollen grains distinct-where plants were sowed |
| Dendrochronology | Width and other features of tree rings. Ability to tell past climates |
| Epiphyte | Grow on other plants |
| Plant physiology and metabolism | Function and nutritional needs of plant (conduct water) |
| Plant Taxonomy | Classification of plants |
| Ecology and ethnobotany | (practical uses of plants + products - natural products) Interaction of plants with each other and environment. Greenhouse effect; cutting down of trees; loss of habitat |
| Cells | Cytoplasm, cell membrane, DNA/RNA |
| Growth | up mass |
| Reproduction | produce of offspring (asexual and sexual) |
| Movement | cytoplasmic streaming (within cells) stem grows towards light roots grow towards dark and water |
| Respond to Stimulus | light, temperature (gets too hot, stomata closes- wilt), gravity |
| Callose | when attacked/pierced produce a plugging substance. A mass of undifferentiated cells |
| Metabolize | Respiration (releases energy) Photosynthesis (makes food) Digestion (conversion of large to small molecules) Assimilation (conversion of raw materials into cell components) |
| Adapt to Environment | Survival of fittest |
| Matter | Basic part of life |
| What is matter? | Solid, liquid, gas Occupies space Has mass (weight) Composed of elements |
| Hydrogen | Part of most organic compound (water) |
| Oxygen | necessary for respiration and also part of water |
| Carbon | Skeleton of most organisms, part of most organic compound |
| Nitrogen | Part of amino acids (proteins(, nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) chlorophyll |
| Potassium | Part of ATP (cells store energy) part of DNA, RNA |
| Magnesium | Basic element of chlorophyll; cofactor for several enzymes |
| Atom | Smallest part of an element |
| Atomic Number | Number of protons |
| Atomic mass | Number of protons and neutrons |
| 1st orbital | 2 electrons |
| 2nd, 3rd, etc orbital | Up to 8 electrons |
| Needs Energy | To go from 1st to 2nd to 3rd |
| Releases energy | from 3rd to 2nd to 1st |
| Isotope | An element that exists in 2 or more forms due to a difference in the amount of neutrons |
| Compound | two or more elements forming a definite bond |
| Water considered a polar molecule | has unequal charges |
| Cohesion | Two or more water molecules attract to each other. One of the reasons water sticks together and can flow up the stem |
| Molecule | Smallest independently existing compound or element (O2) |
| Monosaccharides (Carbohydrate) | Simplest type, glucose and fructose C6H12O6 |
| Isomer | Same # of elements but different structures |
| Disaccharides (Carbohydrate) | 2 monosaccharides Sucrose = glucose + fructose Form in which some plants store energy. (sugarcane/beet) |
| Dehydration | Removal of water Needs energy and an enzyme |
| Hydrolysis | Addition of water Releases energy and an enzyme |
| Polysaccharides (Carbohydrate) | Several monosaccharides (monomers: repeating units) |
| Starch | Made up of branched glucose. Used as storage. In this form energy stored in seeds for germination, modified roots, stems C6H10O5 |
| Cellulose | Structural polymer Unbranched glucose Tension to cell walls We cannot digest cellulose |
| Fatty acids + glycerol (lipids) | 3 c with 3 OH groups Most insoluble in water because not polar Energy rich Fats (solid at RT) Oils (liquid at RT) |
| Saturated | Many animal lipid H atoms attached to every carbon atom |
| Unsaturated | At least 1 double bond Less H atoms |
| Polyunsaturated | Vegetable oils 3 or more double bonds |
| Waxes | No glycerol, only fatty acids and alcohol Solid at RT Embedded in cutin and suberin (also impt lipids) Surface of plant leaves Repel water, protect against microorganisms |
| Phospholipids | 2 fatty acids, 1 glycerol 1 of the fatty acid chain replaced by a phosphate group Can be polar due to phosphate (-vely charged) Can repel/attract some compounds Polar head dissolves in water Important part of membrane |
| Amino acids/polypeptides/proteins | consists of C, H, O, N and sometimes S 20 usable amino acids Various combinations in each polypeptide/proteins Each amino acid has amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) Also has a R group |
| Glycine | Simplest amino acid |
| Peptide bond | Polypeptides are chains of amino acids joined by a peptide bond Plants can make their own amino acids, but animals make only a few so have to get from plants |
| Proteins | Proteins are formed from polypeptides + simple sugars + other materials Regulate chemical reactions e.g. enzymes |
| Storage Proteins | Source of energy (potato and onion) |
| Primary Structure of Proteins | Sequence of amino acids Maintained by peptide bonds |
| Secondary Structure of Proteins | Interactions amongst a.a. along chain as the chain elongates Maintained by H bonds |
| Two Main Secondary Structures | Alpha helix (Spiral staircase) Beta pleated sheet |
| Tertiary Structure | Only time it's functional Active structure of proteins Polypeptide further coils and folds Structure maintained by bonds between R groups |
| Tertiary Structure | Bonds are weak, so easily broken (denatured) by heat and acid/base When denatured, they lose their tertiary structure and lose activity Seen when egg white is cooked, call coagulation |
| Quaternary Structure | Also functional in this state Having more than 1 kind of polypeptide Not every structure has it |
| Enzymes | Essential for life Mainly large complex proteins Some can be nucleic acids (RNA) Enzymes are specific to substrate (lock and key model) Enzyme + substrate form a complex |
| Enzymes | Function as organic catalyst by changing the rate of chemical reactions under specific pH (buffer) and temp, but remain unchanged so they can be used over and over again (eventually are degraded) |
| Enzymes | Substrate -----> (enzyme) product Enzyme = ase |
| Sucrase (Invertase) | Name of the enzyme that changes sucrose into glucose and fructose |
| Enzymes | Without enzymes, most reactions will not take place (or too long), too much E is needed to go from substrate to product. |
| Energy of Activation | Enzyme lowers the energy needed In the lab can use heat to lower E of activation (speed up reaction) In cells there are hundreds of reactions occurring simultaneously, and too much heat will kill the cell so use enzymes |
| Nucleic acids | Information that directs everything in cell 3 subunits Chains of molecules called nucleotides |
| Phosphate group | (Phosphoric acid) gives the nucleic acid |
| a 5 C Sugar | Fibrose or deoxyribose |
| Fructose | Sugar that has a similar structure to ribose/deoxyribose |
| Nitrogenous Base | Cytosine, Adenine, Thiamine, Glycine (DNA) Cytosine, Adenine, Uracil, Glycine (RNA) DNA has an H RNA has an OH |
| DNA/RNA | Negatively charged because of phosphate group (polar and dissolves in water) |
| DNA Helix | DNA consists of two chains of nucleotides coiled around each other DNA is the longest and largest macromolecule in cell DNA is the carrier of genetic material Organized in genes and DNA is inherited |
| RNA | RNA consists of 1 chains of nucleotides |
| Central Dogma | DNA is used to make RNA. RNA is used to make proteins |
| Cells | 1st seen by Robert Hooke in 1665 Developed primitive microscope Examined cork in wine bottle Noticed that in the cork, saw small cavities separated by walls Resembled little rooms |
| Cell Theory | All living organisms composed of 1 or more cells All chemical reactions take place in a cell Calls arise from other cells Hereditary information passed from parent to daughter cells Cells are the structural bases of organization |
| Light Microscope | Similar to ones developed by Robert Hooke |
| Dissecting Light Microscope | 3 dimensional viewing 30X |
| Compound Light Microscope | Slice tissues (fix and dye tissues) or small living organisms observed Best is 1500X |
| Electron Microscope | a. electromagnetic beams instead of visible light b. developed over the last 100 years |
| Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) | Sliced very thin, no living organisms- has to fix tissues 200,000X- great detail within cell Very sensitive and very, very expensive Very tedious Needs an earthquake proof room |
| Scanning Tunneling Microscope (Type of TEM) | Uses a probe that tunnels electrons upon a sample Produces a map of sample surface Even atoms can become discernible First picture of DNA segment showing helical structure |
| Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) | No living organisms- may "fix" tissues Surface detail of objects( e.g. hair and skin, stem, leaf, pollen surface) 10,000X Expensive |
| Common Features of Cells | (A) Outer membrane (plasma/cell membrane) (A) Isolate cell from external environment (B) Genetic material (B) direct cell activity (B) Produce other cell [Sexual or asexual (clones) reproduction] |
| No Cell Membrane | No ability to maintain pH, temp, metabolism (Very important for enzymes) |
| Prokaryotic | Large, circular chromosome of DNA with proteins loosely associated No nuclei (no nuclear membrane) Bacterium, Virus |
| Eukaryotic | Chromosome surrounded by a envelop separating it from rest of cells Chromosomes within nucleus Plant cells, animal cells |
| Cell Size | 10-100 micron (micrometer) A lot of cells make up an organism (multicellular) If volume increases too much, it does not allow rapid communication within cells (larger organisms have to develop nervous system) Cytoplasmic streaming |
| Cell Wall | Distinguishes plant cell from animal cell Defines size + shape of cell due to its rigidity Texture and final form of organ Prevents rupture of cell wen absorbing water |
| Cell Wall | Helps defend against bacterial/viral and fungal pathogens Plant cell types identified by structure of walls Made up of cellulose microfibrils |
| Cellulose | Polysaccharide (unbranced glucose) |
| Hemicellulose | Holds the matrix of cellulose microfibrils together |
| Pectin | Glue |
| Glycoproteins | Proteins + Sugar |
| Lignin (phenol) | Strength + Stiffness Waterproofs cells Used in areas where plants need extra support Also have cutin, suberin and waxes (fats Dead |
| Support | Plants need support in their stems and branches |
| Formation of Cell Wall | Two adjacent cells (plasma membrane) Pectin is deposited to form a middle lamella Deposition of cellulose, hemicellulose, glycoproteins and water |
| Primary Cell Wall | Deposited before and during growth Flexible Cells that are actively growing have only a primary cell wall |
| Actively Growing Tissues | Areas of actively growing tissues are the roots and shoot tips/nodes |
| Primary Cell Walls | Are not uniform thickness Have thin areas Usually permeable Allows slower movement of water and other dissolved substances |
| Plasmodesmata | Tiny strands of cytoplasm which connect 1 cell to another Allow substances to pass from one cell to the next |
| Secondary Cell Wall | Contain more cellulose + lignin than primary cell wall May lack pectin, no glycoproteins |
| Plasma Membrane | Outer border of cell Made up of phospholipids Also have protein and carbohydrates embedded in it Prevents/ allows transport of substances in/out of cell Coordinates synthesis of cellulose microfibrils |
| Plasma Membrane | Receives/ transmits signals involved in growth and differentiation |
| Nucleus | Most prominent structure in many cells Control center Membrane hound (nuclear envelope) |
| Nucleus | Permits only certain substances to enter/leave Proteins + enzymes enter RNA leaves |
| Nucleoplasm | Granular matrix |
| The Nucleolus | RNA + proteins Light microscope usually can only see the nucleus |
| Chromatin | (DNA + Histone protein) When cell is dividing, chromatin becomes thicker Called chromosomes |
| Arabidopists thaliana | 10 chromosomes |
| Ophioglossum | 1.260 chromosomes |
| Homo sapiens | 46 chromosomes |
| Triticum vulgare | 42 chromosomes bread wheat |
| Chromosomes | Size and complexity of an organism is not related to the # of chromsomes # of chromosomes in sex cells is 1/2 the # of somatic cells Vegetative (or somatic) in plants |
| Sex cells in plants | Pollen grains and ovules |
| Plastids | Distinguishes plant from animal cells develop from proplastids (small colorless/pale green organelles) Develop from mature plastids Contain DNA Membrane bound |
| Chloroplasts | Sites of photosynthesis Contain chlorophyll + carotenoid (yellow/red pigments - color of leaves and ripe fruits) Each cell of higher plants have more than 40 |
| Chromoplasts | Lack chlorophyll Have carotenoids May develop from chloroplast Attract insects during pollination |
| Leucoplasts (amyloplasts) | Lack pigments Synthesize starch (and store oils) (potatoes) |
| Invagination | Folding of inner membranes Greater surface area |
| Mitochondria | Site of respiration Make ATP Contains DNA Membrane bound |
| Endosymbiont Theory | Chloroplasts and mitochondria are ancient organisms Invaded plant cells were taken up Symbiotic relationship Plant cells provide a home, safety Chloroplast make food, and mitochondria produce energy Extra energy |
| Mitochondria and Chloroplast were organisms | Have DNA (prokaryotic) |
| Vacuole | Most prominent in plant cells Distinguishes plant from animal cell Membrane bound (tonoplast) with a liquid (cell sap) Maintains osmotic potential within cells Has water, inorganic ions e.g. K+, sugars, acids |
| Vacuole | Stores secondary compounds Has water soluble pigments (anthocyanin) (red/blue/purple color of flowers) (E.g. turnip, grapes, cherries, roses) Responsible for many color changes in the fall |
| Vacuole | Stores water Breakdown + recyceling of plastids and mitochondra In young cells a lot of vacuoles As cell ages, unite to form 1 or 2 large vacuoles |
| E.R. | |
| Ribosomes | |
| Dictyosomes | |
| Diffusion | Movement of molecules/ions from region of high concentration to a region of low concentrations Spraying perfume in the air Moving along a diffusion gradient Once evenly distributed, equilibrium is achieved No energy needed |
| Diffusion | Dependent on temperature, size of molecules, density of medium Speed up movement of the molecules One of the ways in which substances pass into the cell No energy needed |
| Osmosis | A special case of diffusion Diffusion of H2O through a semi-permeable membrane Movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration No energy needed |
| Osmotic Potential | Can prevent osmosis by applying pressure Defined as the pressure to stop osmosis All cells have an osmotic potential (solute potential) Or they would burst quickly if placed in water |
| Turgor Pressure | Water enters the cell by osmosis Increased water into the cell makes the cell firm or turgid Cell wall and vacuole of the plant exerts a pressure that stops too much water from entering the cell) |
| Turgor Pressure | Turgor pressure or pressure potential A typical cell is in a turgid state |
| Water Potential | Osmotic potential + turgor pressure (pressure potential) = water potential Water moves from a region/cell of higher water potential to a region/cell of low water potential |
| More water in plant cell than outside the cell | The cell would lose water; the plasma membrane would pull away from the cell wall |
| Plasmolysis | Loss of water, pulling away of the plasma membrane from the cell wall |
| Isotonic | Same amount of dissolved substances (solute) per unit volume Concentration of the cell and the solution are the same So no net movement of water from solution to cell |
| Hypotonic | less solute, more water |
| Hypertonic | More solute, less water |
| If you placed a plant cell in a hypotonic and hypertonic solution, what would happen? | Hypotonic; turgidity Hypertonic; plasmolysis |
| Imbibition | Water is a polar molecule It is attracted to other polar molecules (whether +vely or -vely charged) Defined as the movement of water into large polar organic molecules |
| Imbibition | Seeds have large polar organic molecules During germination, water enters by osmosis and also by imbibition A tremendous force is exerted by the swelling of the tissue, breaks open the seed coat |
| Active Transport | Movement of solutes or ions against a diffusion/eletrical gradient with the use of energy Controlled by transport proteins (pumps) present in the membranes |
| Tissues | Cells are grouped together to form tissues |
| Meristematic cells: | Most important Areas of permanent active cell division Undergo mitosis Young tissues |
| Meristematic cells: | These cells are: small, large nucleus, tiny/no vacuoles Very little air spaces between them less than 10 layers of them |
| Apical Meristem | Found at the tips of roots and shoots Elongation of roots and shoots Responsible for primary growth |
| Apical Meristem | Plants continue to grow during their life cycle Produce secondary tissues Large nucleus under microscope |
| Primary Meristems | Apical meristems develop into primary meristems 3 types |
| The Protoderm (Primary Meristem) | Differentiate into the epidermis |
| The Procambium (Primary Meristem) | Differentiate into primary xylem and phloem |
| The Ground Meristem (Primary Meristem) | Differentiate into pith and cortex |
| Lateral Meristem (Dicots) | Increase the width/girth of roots and stems (secondary growth) Increased of strength and stability |
| Vascular Cambium (Lateral Meristem) | Found in roots/stems of perennial (woody) plants and many annuals Produces secondary phloem and xylem Dendrochronology |
| The Cork Cambium (Lateral Meristem) | Found in roots/stems Makes cells impervious to moisture Outer bark of woody plants |
| The Intercalary Meristem (monocots) | Grasses No secondary growth Near the nodes and add to stem length |
| Simple Tissues | only 1 type of cells 3 main types of simple tissues |
| Parenchyma (ST) | Most abundant (typical plant cell) Can become meristematic Cortex/pith of stems/roots, flesh of fruits Leaf |
| Parenchyma (ST) | Various shapes, large vacuoles, primary cell wall, large air spaces between them Storage of starch grains Secretion of oils and crystals |
| Chlorenchyma | If have chloroplasts (where photosynthesis takes place) |
| Transfer Cells (specialized parenchyma) | Develop irregular folding that greatly increase surface area of plasma membrane Nectaries of flowers (attract insects) Glands of carnivorous plants (venus flytrap) |
| Collenchyma (ST) | Living at maturity Elongated cells, thicker primary cell wall Support for young growing + mature organs Veins of plants |
| Sclerenchyma (ST) | Lack protoplast at maturity, DEAD Thick tough lignified secondary cell wall Strength |
| Fibers (Sclerenchyma) | Long, slender cells occurring in bands/bundles Stems of help for ropes |
| Sclereids (Sclerenchyma) | Smaller cells found in aggregates throughout the cortex and the seed coats of plants Gritty part of fruits (pears) |
| Complex Tissues | More than 1 type of cells |
| Vascular Tissues (CT) | Produced by the vascular cambium |
| Xylem | Water conducting tissues: fibers + vessels Also has parenchyma and ray cells |
| Xylem Vessels | Mainly found in flowering plants Elongated cells Thick secondary walls (lignin) No cytoplasm at maturity |
| Xylem Vessels | May have pits and perforations to allow water to move from one cell to the next (as these areas there are no cell walls) No cytoplasm |
| Tracheids (dead) Xylem | Mainly found in gymnosperms Cone bearing plants with no flowers (pine, fir) Elongated cells Tapered at each end Thick secondary cell walls Have pits where they come in contact with each other |
| Rays (living) Xylem | Parenchyma cells that are living Allow sideways movement of water Food storage |
| Phloem | Two types of cells |
| Sieve tube members (phloem) | Laid end to end No openings at end walls, just pores No nuclei, living cytoplasm Movement of food |
| Companion Cells | Associated with sieve tube members Have nuclei Have cytoplasmic connestions (plasmodesmata) to sieve tube members Regulated the sieve tube members |
| Sieve Tube | When a sieve tube member is pierced, a polymer (callose) precipitates to form a callus plug that stops leakage |
| Epidermis | Outermost layer of cells Usually 1 cell thick Different types of cells Usually no chloroplasts |
| Secretory cells (epidermis) | Produce cutin |
| Guard cells (epidermis) | Regulate stomatal opening (have chloroplasts) |
| Trichomes (epidermis) | Hairs- Trap insects (do not like hairs), absorb water Root hairs- absorption of water and minerals Hairs on leaf- lower water loss, decrease temp |
| Woody Stems | Produced from secondary growth |
| Periderm (woody) | Replaces epidermis Outer bark (cells present are called cork cells) Dead at maturity Protect stem from water loss, injury, insects |
| Lenticels (woody) | Holes in bark where gas exchange takes place |
| Turgor | Pressure exerted by cell wall |
| Meristematic | Type of cell/tissue that undergoes mitosis |
| Lignin | Phenolic compound; dead |
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rrawls914
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