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Biology Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aerobic | oxygenized |
| anaerobic | deoxygenized |
| substrate level phosphorylation | Phosphate group is transferred to ADP from an enzyme substrate, in this case the organic molecule |
| electron carriers | carry electrons (and energy) from one set of reactions to another |
| electron transport chain | transfer electrons along a series of membrane-associated proteins to a final electron acceptor and in the process harness the energy released to produce ATP |
| oxidative phosphorylation | In aerobic respiration, oxygen is the final electron acceptor, resulting in the formation of water. |
| oxidation | loss of electrons |
| reduction | gain of electrons |
| oxidation-reduction reaction | chemical reactions in which electrons are transferred from one atom or molecule to another |
| electron carries act as | shuttles |
| in aerobic respiration, glucose is | oxidized |
| in aerobic respiration, oxygen is | reduced |
| what does aerobic respiration produce | water |
| in glucose, electrons are shared | equally |
| in carbon dioxide, electrons are shared | unequally |
| electrons are more likely to be found near | the oxygen atom |
| first stage of cellular respiration | glycolysis |
| second stage of cellular respiration | pyruvate oxidation |
| third stage of cellular respiration | citric acid cycle |
| fourth stage of cellular respiration | oxidative phosphorylation |
| glycolysis | glucose is partially broken down to make pyruvate and energy is transferred to ATP and reduced electron carriers |
| produced in pyruvate oxidation | reduced electron carriers |
| released in pyruvate oxidation | carbon dioxide |
| enters the citric acid cycle | Acetyl-CoA |
| the acetyl group is completely oxidized to | carbon dioxide |
| in o.p, electron carriers donate electrons to | electron transport chain |
| glycolysis takes place in the | cytoplasm |
| the electron transport chain is made up of | proteins and small molecules |
| cellular respiration for bacteria take place in the | cytoplasm |
| where is the electron transport chain in bacteria | plasma membrane |
| produced in glycolysis | pyruvate |
| 6-carbon sugar | glucose |
| first phase of glycolysis | preparatory phase |
| second phase of glycolysis | cleavage phase |
| third phase of glycolysis | pay off phase |
| what type of process is the preparatory phase | endergonic |
| what does preparatory phase add to glucose | phosphate |
| what is produced in the payoff phase | ATP and NADH |
| where does pyruvate oxidation take place | mitochondrial matrix |
| mitochondria | Rod shaped organelles surrounded by a double membrane |
| inter membrane space | Space between inner and outer membranes |
| mitochondrial matrix | space enclosed by inner membrane |
| what is pyruvate converted into in pyruvate oxidation | acetyl-CoA |
| the citric acid cycle takes place in the | mitochondrial matrix |
| produces the most energy | citric acid cycle |
| the citric acid cycle supplies electrons to the | electron transport chain |
| the citric acid cycle produces | ATP and electron carriers |
| what is regenerated again at the end of the citric acid cycle? | oxaloacetate |
| how many carbons are eliminated in the citric acid cycle | 2 |
| what are the carbons released as in the citric acid cycle | carbon dioxide |
| some bacteria run the cycle in | reverse |
| how many complexes make up the electron transport chain | 4 |
| Reduced coenzyme Q transfers electrons to | complex 3 |
| cytochrome c transfers electrons to | complex 4 |
| Complex IV reduces oxygen to | water |
| Complexes I and II accept | electrons |
| The buildup of protons in the intermembrane space results in a | proton electrochemical gradient |
| the electron transport chain transfers | electrons and pump protons |
| the complexes are imbedded in the | mitochondrial inner membrane |
| each donor and accepter are a | redox couple |
| transfer of electrons through complexes 1,3,4 are done by | pumping proteins |
| the inner mitochondrial membrane is | selectively permeable |
| mutualism | both parties benefit |
| commensalism | one party benefits with little to no effect on the other |
| parasitism | one party benefits at the expense of the other |
| plants carry out _________ and ____________ | photosynthesis and cellular respiration |
| animals carry out _____________ | cellular respiration |
| endosymbiont theory | Chloroplasts and mitochondria have evolved directly from bacteria that were internalized into another prokaryotic cell |
| symbiosis | living together |
| mitochondrial ancestor was effective at | respiration and utilizing complex chemicals |
| chloroplast ancestor was | photosynthetic |
| chloroplasts are like __________ power plants | solar |
| mitochondria are like __________ power plants | coal |
| stroma | thick fluid in the chloroplast |
| what does cellular respiration require | oxygen |
| what does cellular respiration produce | carbon dioxide |
| what type of process is photosynthesis | anabolic |
| what type of process is cellular respiration | catabolic |
| isomer | converts glucose to fructose structure |
| what type of energy source is a proton gradient | potential |
| the inner mitochondrial membrane is | selectively permeable |
| what are the two types of gradients | chemical and electrical |
| why does the chemical gradient take place | the difference in concentration |
| why does the electrical gradient take place | due to the difference of charge on both sides of the membrane |
| another name for proton gradient | electrochemical gradient |
| proton gradients have a high concentration in the | inter membrane |
| proton gradients have a low concentration in the | mitochondrial matrix |
| converts energy from proton gradient to ATP | synthase |
| ATP synthase | An enzyme that couples the movement of protons through the enzyme with the synthesis of ATP. |
| in lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to _________ | lactic acid |
| in ethanol fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to ____________ | ethanol |
| Fermentation | extracts energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen |
| why is fermentation used | for anaerobic organisms or organisms that favor it over oxidative phosphorylation |
| The 2 major pathways of fermentation | lactic acid fermentation and ethanol fermentation |
| lactic acid fermentation occurs in | animals and bacteria |
| ethanol fermentation occurs in | plants and fungi |
| fermentation yields | 2 ATP |
| stored in animals | glycogen |
| stored in plants | starch |
| excess glucose is as | glycogen |
| Fatty acids and proteins are a useful source of | energy |
| Fatty acid molecules are rich in | carbon |
| Beta Oxidation | The process of shortening fatty acids by a series of reactions that sequentially remove two carbon units from their ends. |
| Beta Oxidation produces | NADH and FADH2 |
| the brain and red blood cells depend on __________ for energy | glucose |
| what does the ATP level in a cell indicate | the energy a cell has available |
| photic zone | The surface layer of the ocean through which enough sunlight penetrates to enable photosynthesis |
| the source of all food we eat | photosynthesis |
| what type of reaction is photosynthesis | redox |
| what is synthesized during photosynthesis | carbohydrates from CO2 molecules |
| during photosynthesis, ______ molecules are reduced | CO2 |
| water | the ultimate electron donor |
| photosynthetic electron transport chain | A series of redox reactions in which light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to power the movement of electrons; in oxygenic photosynthesis, the electrons ultimately come from water and the terminal electron acceptor is NADP+ |
| ATP and NADPH | energy sources needed to synthesize carbohydrates |
| specialized membranes | where the photosynthetic electron transport takes place |
| where does photosynthesis take place in eukaryotes | chloroplast |
| thylakoid membrane | A highly folded membrane in the center of the chloroplast that contains light-collecting pigments and that is the site of the photosynthetic electron transport chain |
| where is the photosynthetic electron transport chain located | thylakoid membrane |
| grana | (singular, granum) Interlinked structures that form the thylakoid membrane |
| lumen | n eukaryotes, the continuous interior of the endoplasmic reticulum; in plants, a fluid-filled compartment enclosed by the thylakoid membrane; generally, the interior of any tubelike structure |
| stroma | The region surrounding the thylakoid, where carbohydrate synthesis takes place |
| carbohydrate synthesis takes place in the | stroma |
| carbohydrates are broken down to make | ATP |
| first step of the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | addition of CO2 |
| second step of Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | reduction |
| third step of Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | regeneration |
| the reducing agent of the Calvin cycle (photosynthesis) | NADPH |
| The regeneration of RuBP requires | ATP |
| the Calvin cycle does not use sunlight ___________ | directly |
| Calvin cycle only occurs in _______ | light |
| visible light is absorbed by __________ | chlorophyll |
| antenna chlorophyll molecules | transfer absorbed light energy to the reaction center |
| endosymbiosis | The process in which one cell takes up residence inside of another cell |
| signaling cell | the source of a signaling molecule |
| signaling molecule | The carrier of information transmitted when the signaling molecule binds to a receptor; also referred to as a ligand |
| receptor protein | The molecule on the responding cell that binds to the signaling molecule |
| Responding cell | The cell that receives information from the signaling molecule |
| quorum sensing | a process by which bacteria are able to determine whether they are at low or high population density and then turn on specific genes across the entire community |
| Receptor Activation | The “turning on” of a receptor, which often occurs when a signaling molecule binds to a receptor on a responding cell |
| signal transduction | The process in which an extracellular molecule acts as a signal to activate a receptor, which transmits information through the cytoplasm |
| Response | A change in cellular behavior, such as activation of enzymes or genes, following a signal |
| Termination | In protein translation, the time at which the addition of amino acids stops and the completed polypeptide chain is released from the ribosome. In cell communication, the stopping of a signal |
| Termination protects the cell from | overreacting |
| When the two cells are far apart, the signaling molecule is transported by the | circulatory system |
| endocrine signaling | takes place over long distances and often relies on the circulatory system for transport of signaling molecules, travel through bloodstream |
| Paracrine signaling | Signaling by a molecule that travels a short distance to the nearest neighboring cell to bind its receptor and deliver its message |
| Growth Factor | Any one of a group of small, soluble molecules, usually the signal in paracrine signaling, that affect cell growth, cell division, and changes in gene expression |
| Neurons | nerve cells that do short distance signaling |
| Autocrine Signaling | Signaling between different parts of a cell; the signaling cell and the responding cell are one and the same |
| autocrine signaling is important to | multicellular organisms |
| cancer | uses autocrine signaling for cell division |
| Delta protein | signaling molecule |
| Notch | receptor |
| Ligand | Alternative term for a signaling molecule that binds with a receptor, usually a protein |
| Ligand-binding site | The specific location on the receptor protein where a signaling molecule binds |
| G protein coupled receptor | A receptor that couples to G proteins, which bind to the guanine nucleotides GTP and GDP |
| G protein | A protein that binds to the guanine nucleotides GTP and GDP A second group of cell-surface receptors are themselves enzymes, which are activated when the receptor binds its ligand |
| Receptor Kinase | A receptor that is an enzyme that adds a phosphate group to another molecule |
| Phosphatases | An enzyme that removes a phosphate group from another molecule |
| First step of cell signaling | receptor activation |
| second messenger | An intermediate cytosolic signaling molecule that transmits signals from a receptor to a target within the cell. (First messengers transmit signals from outside the cell to a receptor.) |
| Binding affinity | The tightness of the binding between the receptor and the signaling molecule |
| Tissue | A collection of cells that work together to perform a specific function |
| Organ | Two or more tissues that combine and function together |
| Cytoskeleton | In Eukaryotes, an internal protein scaffold that helps cells to maintain their shape and serves as a network of tracks for movement of substances within cells |
| Cell junction | A complex of proteins in the plasma membrane where a cell makes contact with another cell or extracellular matrix |
| Extracellular matrix | In eukaryotes, an internal protein scaffold that helps cells to mainain their shapeand serves as a network of tracks for the movement of substances within cells |
| Epithelial Cells | cells arranged in one or more layers |
| Epithelial Tissue | Made up of epithelial cells |
| Basal Lamina | A specialized form of extracellular matrix that underlies and supports all epithelial tissues |
| Tubulin | Dimers that assemble into microfilaments |
| Centrosome | A compact structure that is the microtubule organizing center for animal cells |
| Actin | A protein subunit that makes up microfilaments, used by both striated and smooth muscles to contract and generate force |
| Dynamic Instability | Cycles of shrinkage and growth into microtubules |
| Motor proteins | Any of various proteins that are involved in intracellular transport or cause muscle contraction by moving the actin microfilaments inside muscle cells |
| Kinesin | A motor protein similar in structure to myosin, that transports cargo toward the plus end of microtubules. |
| Dynein | A motor protein that carries cargo away from the plasma membrane toward the minus ends of microtubules |
| Cilia | A hairlike organelle that propels the movement of cells or substances within cells or out of the body; shorter than a flagellum |
| Myosin | A motor protein found in cells that carries cargo to the plus ends of microfilaments and is also used by both striated and smooth muscles to contract and generate force |
| Integrins | A transmembrane protein, present on the surface of virtually every animal cell, that enables cells to adhere to the extracellular matrix |
| Desmosomes | A button like point of adhesion that holds the plasma membranes of adjacent cells together |
| Hemidesmosome | A type of desmosome in which integrins are the prominent cell adhesion molecules |
| Karyotype | arrangement of chromosomes based on shape and number |
| Homologous Chromosomes | one gene from mom and one gene from dad |
| sex chromosomes | chromosomes associated with sex (x and y) |
| Haploid | 1 set of chromosomes |
| Diploid | 2 sets of chromosomes |
| Polypoid | 2+ sets of chromosomes |
| Example of a polypoid | plants |
| sister chromatids | 2 copies of a chromosome |
| How are sister chromatids produced? | replication |
| Centromere | holds sister chromatids together |
| prophase | chromosomes condense |
| pro metaphase | attach chromosomes to centromeres |
| mitotic spindle | separates daughter cells |
| kinetochores | site of spindle fiber attachment |
| metaphase | chromosomes align |
| anaphase | sister chromatids separate (46 chromosomes arrive) |
| telophase | 2 new nuclei prepare for cell division |
| cytokinesis | contractile ring pulled into 2 |
| what drives cytokinesis | Ftsz |
| contractile ring | forms against inner cell membrane |
| meiotic cell division | 2 rounds of nuclear division |
| chiasma | crossing over |
| crossover | breakage and reunion of non sister chromatids |
| female cytoplasmic division | divided unequally, cytoplasm distributed |
| male cytoplasmic division | divided equally, cytoplasm eliminated |
| non-identical daughter cells | gametes, sperm, eggs |
| genome | all the cells DNA |
| telomeres | chromosome ends |
| histone charge | positive |
| DNA charge | negative |
| template strand | parental strand synthesizes daughter strand |
| daughter strand | synthesized from parent strand |
| DNA duplex | newly synthesized strand and leftover strand |
| semiconservative replication | DNA duplex synthesizes new daughter strand |
| replication fork | DNA separates as DNA duplex unwinds |
| leading strand | synthesized as long continuous polymer |
| lagging strand | new piece of DNA initiated at intervals |
| Okazaki fragments | small lagging pieces |
| RNA primase | synthesizes RNA |
| DNA ligase | used to close a DNA strand |
| Topoisomerase II | breaks DNA double helix |
| Helicase | unwinds double parental helix |
| origin of replication | where DNA synthesis is initiated |
| replication bubble | opening of DNA duplex |
| telomerase | enzyme containing rNA |
| stem cells | undergo mitotic division |
Created by:
Kacie25
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