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A&P 1 Final Guide
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| A. Two systems supply oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide | 1. Respiratory system 2. Circulatory system |
| Resp System Function | 1. Exchange of gases 2. Sound production 3. Provides abdominal compression during micturition, defecation, parturition, and lifting 4. Keep airways clean through coughing and sneezing |
| Otorhinolaryngology | the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the ear, nose, and throats. |
| Respiratory zones | Conduction zone - tubes that direct air flow to tissues where gas exchange occurs. Respiratory zone - tissues where gas exchange occurs. |
| c) Nasal septum | (2) formed by perpendicular plate of ethmoid; vomer; vomeronasal and septal cartilages |
| Meati | passages for air; divided into superior, middle, inferior; named for turbinate bones located above each meatus |
| Openings | External nares (nostrils) - open into vestibule from the exterior; Internal nares - permit air to flow from sphenoethmoidal recess into nasopharynx |
| Lining | respiratory mucosa; pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells and many mucus glands |
| Functions of the nose | a) Serves as passageway for incoming and outgoing air - filters, moistens, warms and chemically examines it b) Organ of smell - olfactory receptors located in nasal mucosa c) Aids in phonation |
| Functions of the pharynx | serves both respiratory and digestive tracts as passageway for air, food, and liquids and aids in phonation |
| (a) four openings in nasopharynx | two auditory (Eustachian tubes) tubes two posterior nares |
| Oropharynx (located behind the mouth) | (a) one opening in oropharynx - fauces from mouth (b) palatine and lingual tonsils in oropharynx |
| Larynx | Cartilages - nine pieces arranged in boxlike formation |
| Cricoid Cartilage | (a) A ring of hyaline cartilage that forms inferior wall of larynx. (b) Landmark for performing a tracheostomy, which is performed in the trachea immediately inferior to this cartilage. |
| Vocal Cord Lining | ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium |
| Vocal Cord Function | expired air causes true vocal cords to vibrate, producing voice; pitch determined by length and tension of cords |
| Layers of tracheal wall | a) Mucosa - deepest; has two sub-layers (1) Epithelial layer - stratified ciliated columnar epithelium that the air comes into contact with. (2) Lamina propria - underlying connective tissue. b) Submucosa - aereolar connective tissue and glands c) Hya |
| Trachea Functions | furnishes open passageway for air going to and from lungs |
| Changes in the bronchial tree as it branches | (1) Changes in mucous membrane (a) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium in the primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi (b) Ciliated simple columnar epithelium in bronchioles (c) Simple cuboidal epitheliam in terminal bronchioles (2) Changes |
| Costal surface | rounded to match curvature of ribs. |
| Mediastinal surface- Hilus - | region through which bronchi, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and exit the lungs |
| Mediastinal surface-Root of lung - | plural and connective tissues that group together the above tissues entering into the hilus. |
| Plueras | Parietal pleura - the superficial layer that lines the wall of the thoracic cavity. Visceral pleura - the deep layer covering each lung. Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal pleura and visceral pleura. Contains a small amount of lubricating |
| Pleurisy (pleuritis) | inflammation of the pleural membrane. |
| Alveolar Membrane | (1) Layer of type I and type II alveolar cells with free alveolar macrophages constitute alveolar (epithelial) wall (2) Epithelial basement membrane under alveolar wall (3) Capillary basement membrane that may fuse with epithelial basement membrane |
| ... | c) Lungs may contain 300 million alveoli with surface area of 70 square meters (about size of handball court) |
| Alveoli Function | furnish place where large amounts of air and blood can come in close enough contact for rapid exchange of gases to occur |
| Mechanisms of pulmonary ventilation | 1. Boyle's Law - the pressure of gas inside a container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container. 2. Contraction of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles enlarges thorax thereby decreasing air pressure in thoracic cavity. 3. Alveola |
| Decreased compliance can occur because of | (1) Scarred lung tissue (tuberculosis, pneumonia, etc.) (2) Pulmonary edema - fluid in lungs increase surface tension (3) A deficiency in surfactant (4) Damage to muscles that control respiration |
| Airway resistance | bronchi and bronchioles normally dilate upon inspiration decreasing resistance to airflow; conditions that obstructs air passages increases resistance |
| Compliance | ease with which lungs and thoracic wall expand; related to elasticity and surface tension |
| Surface tension of alveolar fluid | a thin layer of alveolar fluid coats the luminal surface of the alveoli and exerts a force called surface tension, which results from water molecules in the liquid being attracted to each other. |
| Spirometer (aka respirometer) | the apparatus used to measure the volume of air exchanged and the respiratory rate |
| Tidal volume (VT) | volume of a normal breath; 500 ml |
| Minute ventilation (MV) | the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute. a) MV = respiratory rate x VT |
| Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) - | amount that can be forcibly inspired after normal inspiration; 3100 ml (M) or 1900 ml (F) |
| Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) | additional amount of air that can be forcibly expired after a normal inspiration and expiration; 1200 ml (M) or 700 ml (F) |
| Residual volume (RV) | amount of air that cannot be forcibly expired; 1200 ml |
| Vital capacity | largest volume of air an individual can move in and out of lungs; equals IRV+ VT +ERV = 4800 ml |
| Anatomical dead space | volume of air that fills nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and smaller tubes but doe not descend into alveoli, thus does not take part in gas exchange (30% of VT -150 ml) |
| Dalton's law | partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases is directly related to the concentration of that gas in mixture and to total pressure of mixture. (Important in determining movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between atmosphere and lungs, lungs and blood |
| Henry's law | quantity of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility coefficient, when the temp. remains constant 1. The higher the partial pressure of a gas over a liquid and the higher the solubility coe |
| Factors affecting rate of external respiration | 1. Partial pressure difference 2. Surface area for gas exchange 3. Diffusion distance 4. Breathing rate and depth |
| Exchange of gases in tissues internal respiration | A. Occurs in tissue capillaries B. Oxygen pressure gradient causes diffusion of oxygen out of blood while CO2 gradient causes its diffusion into blood C. Results of oxygen diffusion out of blood and carbon dioxide diffusion into blood -PO2 blood decre |
| Oxygen | a) Transport: About 0.5 ml transported as solute (dissolved in blood), and about 19.5 ml/l00 ml in blood transported as oxyhemoglobin in rbc b) Hemoglobin and p02 - when deoxyhemoglobin is completely converted to HbO it is fully saturated. percent satur |
| Hemoglobin and other factors - factors influencing affinity of hemoglobin for O2 | (1) Acidity (pH) - Bohr effect -lowered pH drives oxygen off hemoglobin (2) Partial pressure of C02 - as pC02 rises, hemoglobin releases O2 easier (3) Temperature - as temp. increases, more oxygen released (4) BPG (2,3 bisphosphoglycerate) - decreas |
| Carbon dioxide | a) Small amount dissolves in plasma and transported as solute b) More than half transported as bicarbonate ion in plasma c) Less than third transported in rbc as carbaminohemoglobin |
| Control of Respiratory Centers | a) Carbon dioxide major regulator of respirations (1) increased blood carbon dioxide content stimulates respirations (2) decreased blood carbon dioxide decreases rspirations b) Oxygen content influences respiratory center - decreased blood oxygen stimu |
| Other Influences | a) Temperature - increase in temp. increases respirations b) Pain - sudden produces apnea, prolonged increases c) Stretching the anal sphincter muscle -increases respiratory rate d) Irritation of air passages - cessation of breathing followed by coug |
| Respiratory centers | 1. Inspiratory and expiratory centers in medulla; regulate rhythmicity of respiration 2. Pneumotaxic center in pons - transmits inhibitory impulses to inspiratory center (turn off inspiratory area before lungs become too full of air) 3. Apneustic area |
| Digestive Process | 1. Ingestion -taking food into body a) Mouth: mastication (chewing) - food is mixed with saliva and called a bolus. 2. Movement of food -food passage within the body primarily by peristalsis a) Pharynx: deglutition (swallowing) - movement of bolus in |
| Mucosa | 1. Epithelium - protective lining that interfaces with the lumen a) Esophagus - simple squamous epithelium b) Stomach & small intestine - ciliated simple columnar epithelium c) Large intestine - simple columnar epithelium 2. Lamina propria - areolar c |
| Submucosa | 1. Main blood vessels and lymphatic vessels 2. Plexus of Meissner - part of ENS, the enteric nervous system, or "brain of the gut". a) These nerves regulate secretions in mucosa and movement of muscularis mucosa. |
| Muscularis | 1. Mouth, pharynx, upper esophagus, and external anal sphincter - skeletal muscle under voluntary control 2. Lower esophagus, stomach, and intestines - smooth muscle under involuntary control. a) Two layers (1) Inner sheet of circular muscle fibers (2 |
| Serosa | a serous membrane composed of areolar connective tissue and simple squamous epithelium.1. Called adventitia in esophagus |
| Peritoneum | The largest serous membrane of the body that protects the organs of the abdominolpelvic cavity. |
| Divisions of the peritoneum | 1. Greater omentum a) The largest peritoneal fold that drapes over the transverse colon and small intestines. b) Contains a large amount of adipose tissue that can greatly expand. 2. Falciform ligament - attaches the liver to the anterior abdominal wa |
| Lips | a) Covered by skin externally and mucous membrane internally b) Philtrum - shallow vertical groove on upper lip called c) Oral fissure - Line of contact between closed lips called |
| Cheeks | a) Lined by mucous membrane b) Composed largely of buccinator muscle c) Buccal glands - small mucous-secreting glands between mucous membrane and buccinator muscle d) Vestibule - space between teeth and cheeks. |
| Hard and Soft Palate | a) Hard palate -formed by parts of two palatine and two maxillary bones b) Soft palate -formed of muscle in shape of arch (1) Forms partition between mouth and nasopharynx (2) Fauces is archway or opening from mouth to oropharynx (3) Uvula is conic |
| Tongue | a) Mass of skeletal muscle components covered by mucous membrane (1) Intrinsic muscles -origin and insertion in tongue -alter shape and size of tongue for speech and swallowing (2) Extrinsic muscles -insert on tongue but originate on some other struct |
| Papillae | (1) Taste buds (a) Located on sides of vallate and fungiform papillae (b) Receptors for gustation (taste) and presence of food in the mouth c) Specialized structures (1) Foramen cecum -median pit on dorsal surface of tongue (2) Lingual frenulu |
| Ankyloglossia (tongue-tied) | congenital condition caused by short frenulum that restricts tongue movements |
| Salivary Glands | a) Parotid glands -largest paired salivary glands -secrete watery serous liquid containing enzyme amylase (1) Mumps is an inflammation of these glands. b) Submandibular glands -compound gland -contain both serous (enzyme) and mucus-producing elements |
| Saliva | 99.5% water - medium for dissolving foods. and 0.5% solutes (ions, pH buffers, waste products, mucus, antibodies, enzymes) |
| Divisions of Teeth | (1) Crown -exposed portion of tooth (2) Neck- narrow portion surrounded by gums which joins the crown to the root (3) Root -portion that fits into socket of alveolar process of upper or lower jaw |
| Dental tissues | (1) Enamel- hardest tissue in body and covers crown (2) Dentin -softer than enamel; makes up greatest portion of tooth shell (3) Cementum -forms outer component of tooth shell over the neck and root and attahces to the periodontal ligament (4) Perido |
| Pulp cavity | hollow cavity within dentin containing connective tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels, and sensory nerves |
| Root canal | narrow extensions of pulp cavity that blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves enter and exit the tooth. |
| Dentitions - sets of teeth | (1) Deciduous teeth (primary, milk, or baby teeth) - 20 teeth that begin erupting at around 6 months of age. (2) Permanent (secondary) teeth - 32 teeth that erupt between age 6 years and adulthood. |
| Types of adult teeth | (1) Central and lateral incisors - adapted for cutting food (2) Cuspids (canines) - adapted for tearing and shredding food (3) First and second premolars - adapted for crushing and grinding (4) First and second molars - adapted for crushing and grindin |
| Dental diseases | (1) Dental caries (tooth decay) -disease of enamel, dentin, and cementum; results in demineralization and destruction of tissue with cavity formation (2) Periodontitis- inflammatory disease of gums (gingivae) and periodontal membrane; may cause loosenin |
| Functions of the esophagus | a) Secretes mucus b) Transports food into stomach via peristalsis: (1) Circular muscles in muscularis contract behind the bolus pushes it forward. (2) Longitudinal muscles in muscularis opens esophagus ahead of the bolus. c) It does not produce digest |
| Structures of the esophagus | a) Upper esophageal sphincter - a ring of muscle that regulates the movement of food from the larygopharynx into the esophagus. b) Lower esophageal sphincter - allows bolus to pass from esophagus to stomach |
| Functions of the stomach | a) Mixing chamber for saliva, food, and gastric juices b) Holding reservoir for food before release into small intestine. c) Secretion of gastric juice |
| Divisions | a) Cardia - superior part attached to esophagus b) Fundus -portion above esophageal opening c) Body -central portion d) Pylorus -constricted, lower portion |
| Curves | a) Lesser- upper, right border b) Greater- lower, left border |
| Rugae - | folds of the mucosa that occur when the stomach is empty and the mucosa wrinkles up. |
| Gastric pits - | channels of epithelium that extend into the lamina propria and contains gastric glands |
| Cells in the Stomach | (1) Mucous surface cells and mucus neck cells secrete mucus that creates a protective barrier. (2) Parietal cells (a) HCI - kills microbes, digests proteins (b) intrinsic factor - needed for absorption of B12 for rbc production (3) Zymogenic (chief ce |
| Regulation of gastric digestion | a) Cephalic phase - The senses of sight, smell, and taste, as well as thoughts, stimulates gastric activity through nerve impulses. b) Gastric phase - Stretch receptors detect distention of stomach and chemoreceptors detect the increased pH of stomach an |
| Divisions of the small intestine | a) Duodenum - means "12" (1) first part of the small intestine that joins stomach at pyloric sphincter (2) 25 cm long b) Jejunum - means "empty" because of how it's found at death (1) about 1 meter long c) Ileum - about 2 meters and joins large intes |
| Functions of the small intestine | a) Segmentations mix chyme with digestive juices and bring nutrients into contact with mucosa for absorption. b) Completes the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, and begins the digestion of nucleic acids. c) Most absorption of nutrients a |
| Histology of small intestine | a) Circular folds - permanent folds in the mucosa that increases surface area by making the chime spiral rather than move in a straight line. b) Villi - projections of the mucosa and submucosa that increases the surface area for digestion and absorption. |
| Absorptive cells in small intestine | (a) Microvilli - projections of absorptive cell membranes that increase the surface area of the small intestine. (b) Brush border - the microvilli look like bristles on a brush under the microscope. (c) Secretions of absorptive cells (i) Carbohydrate-d |
| Other cells in small intestine | (2) Goblet cells - secrete mucus (3) Enteroendocrine cells - secretes secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK). (4) Paneth cells - secretes lyzozyme and can phagocytize infectious agents |
| Lymph tissue - | the absorption of materials exposes the blood supply to infectious microbes that are fought by the following lymph structures: (1) MALT - Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue - found in lamina propria of mucosa. (2) Solitary lymphatic nodules (3) Peyer's |
| Brunner's glands - | duodenal glands that secrete an alkaline mucus to neutralize the acids coming from the stomach. |
| Movements of the muscularis | (1) Segmentation - localized mixing contraction that occur 12x/minute in the duodenum and slow to 8x/minute in the ilium. (2) MMC - Migrating Motility Complex - peristalsis caused by longitudinal muscles moving the chyme forward. MMC starts in the lower |
| (1) Carbohydrates | (a) All carbohydrates are absorbed as monosaccharides and most require ATP energy (b) Cellulose and dietary fiber are not absorbed. (c) Once absorbed, monosaccharides enter into the bloodstream and are taken to the liver via the hepatic portal system. |
| Proteins | (a) Proteins may be absorbed as amino acids, dipeptides, or tripeptides. (b) Requires energy to bring through absorptive cells. (c) Once absorbed, amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides enter into the bloodstream and are taken to the liver via the hep |
| Lipids | (a) All lipids are absorbed via simple diffusion. (b) Bile salts from the gallbladder form spheres called micelles which enclose fats and ferry them into the absorptive cells. (c) If there is a deficiency in bile salts, fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) |
| Absorption of Electrolytes | (a) Na+ ions are constantly diffusing into the epithelium, and Na+/K+ pumps are constantly pumping them back out. (b) Negatively charged bicarbonate, chloride, iodide, and nitrate ions, and minerals such as iron, K+, magnesium, and phosphates are brought |
| Absorption of water | (a) Amount of water entering small intestine each day is 9.3 liters, and 8.3 liters is absorbed by small intestine (i) 0.9 liters is absorbed by large intestine (ii) 0.1 liters is excreted in feces |
| Structure of the liver | a) Divided into right and left lobes with several subdivisions b) Lobes divided into lobules by blood vessels and fibrous partitions c) Lobules composed of plates of hepatic cells radiating from central vein d) Portal triad - a hepatic artery, hepati |
| Histology of the liver | (1) Hepatocytes - specialized epithelial cells that secrete bile (2) Stellate reticuloendothelial (Kupfer) cells- fixed phagocytes that destroy worn out white and red blood cells, bacteria, or other harmful matter that has been digested. |
| Functions of the liver | a) Carbohydrate metabolism - maintains normal blood glucose level (1) Blood glucose level too low = glycogen, amino acids, lactic acid, fructose, and galactose are converted into glucose. (2) If blood glucose level is too high, the liver can convert gl |
| Structure of the pancreas | a) Divided into lobes and lobules b) Pancreatic cells pour their secretion into the pancreatic duct (Duct of Wirsung) that runs length of gland and empties into duodenum. The pancreatic duct joins with the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder |
| Histology of the pancreas | a) Acinar cells - 99% of pancreatic cells; secrete pancreatic juice containing enzymes capable of breaking down carbs, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids b) Islets of Langerhans - 1% of cells; secretes glucagons and insulin |
| Regulation of the pancreas | a) Cephalic and gastric phases - send nerve impulses to pancreas stimulating an increase in production of pancreatic enzymes b) Simultaneously, acidic chyme enters the duodenum with partially digested fats and proteins, and this triggers the release of t |
Created by:
alexandra.bell
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