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Tri 2
AP Test Review
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| developmental psychology | a branch or psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span |
| zygote | the fertilized egg, it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo |
| embryo | the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month |
| fetus | the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth |
| teratogens | "monster makers" agents such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm |
| fetal alcohol syndrome | physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant women's heavy drinking, signs include a small, out-of- proportion head and abnormal facial features |
| habituation | decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look way sooner |
| maturation | biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience |
| cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets info |
| assimilation | interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas |
| accommodation | adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new info |
| sensorimotor stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities |
| object permanence | the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived |
| preoperational stage | in Piaget's theory the stage (from 2 to 6-7) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic |
| conservation | the principle (apart of Piaget's concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects |
| egocentrism | in Piaget's theory the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view |
| theory of mind | people's ideas about their own and other's mental states, about their feelings perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict |
| concrete operational | in Piaget's theory the stage of cognitive development (from 7 to 11) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events |
| formal operational | in Piaget's theory the stage of cognitive development (beginning at 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts |
| scaffold | a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking |
| autism spectrum disorder | a disorder that appears i childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors |
| stranger anxiety | the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age |
| attachment | an emotional tie with another person, shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation |
| critical period | an optimal period early in life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce normal development |
| imprinting | the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life |
| strange situation | a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment, a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves then returns, and the child's reaction are observed |
| secure attachment | demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and finds comfort in the caregivers return |
| insecure attachment | demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness |
| temperament | a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity |
| basic trust | according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trust worthy, said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers |
| self concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer o the question "who am I" |
| sex | in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female |
| aggression | any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally |
| gender role | a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males and females |
| role | a set of expectations (norms) about a social position ought to behave |
| gender identity | our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two |
| gender typing | the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role |
| social learning theory | the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished |
| androgyny | displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics |
| transgender | an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth designated sex |
| puberty | the period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing |
| identity | our sense of self, according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles |
| social identity | the "we" aspect of our self-concept the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group memberships |
| emerging adulthood | a period from about age 18 to the mid 20's when many in western culture are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults |
| X chromosome | the sex chromosome found in both males and females. females typically have 2 and males 1. and X-chromosome from each parent produces a female child |
| Y chromosome | the sex chromosome typically found only in men, when paired with an X-chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child |
| testosterone | the most important male sex hormone. both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty |
| primary sex characteristic | the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible |
| secondary sex characteristics | non reproductive sexual traits such as female breasts and hips, and male voice quality and body hair |
| spermarche | the first ejaculation |
| menarche | the first menstrual period |
| intersex | a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy. possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes |
| AIDS | a life-threatening sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus HIV. AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infection |
| sexual orientation | our enduring sexual attraction, usually towards members of our own sex (homosexual) or the other sex (heterosexual) variation include attraction towards both sexes (bisexual) |
| menopause | the time of natural cessation of menstruation, also refers to the biological changes a women experiences as her ability to reproduce declines |
| cross sectional study | research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time |
| longitudinal study | research that follows and retests the same people over time |
| neurocognitive disorder | acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits, often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse, in older adults neurocognitve disorders were formerly called dementia |
| Alzheimer's disease | a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities |
| social clock | the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement |
| Sigmund Freud | 5 stages of human development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. these psychosexual stages show the main growth points of a person from infancy to adulthood, focuses in wants, needs, and desires |
| Jean Piaget | 1896-1980; Field: cognition; Contributions: created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development. sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, formal |
| Lev Vygostsky | child development. investigated how culture and interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development, play research |
| Harry Harlow | 1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: Rhesus monkeys, studied attachment of infant monkeys (wire mothers v. cloth mothers) |
| Margaret Harlow | child development. helped her husband in the lab with the monkey experiment but studied the importance of parent care in the development of primate infants |
| Konrad Lorenz | studies imprinting by working with geese |
| Mary Ainsworth | studied attachment insecure vs. secure attachment, strange situation, child attachment |
| Erik Erikson | social development. created an 8 stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "who am I?" |
| Dianna Baumrind | clinical and developmental. researched parenting styles and the use of deception authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and neglectful |
| Carol Gilligan | cognition and moral development. believed that kohlberg's work was developed by only observing boy's and overlooked potential differences between habitual moral judgements of boys and girls. girls focus more on relationships than on law/principles |
| Albert Bandura | studies and created the social learning theory and self efficiency. studies aggression/ non-aggression in kids |
| Lawrence Kohlberg | cognition and moral development. created a theory of moral development that focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior. pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional |
| gender | in psychology the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and women |
| relational aggression | an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing |
| adolescence | the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence |
| authoritative | parents who have rules but are understanding. tough love |
| permissive | parents who give in to children's desires |
| authoritarian | parents who impose rules and expect obedience |
| negligent | parents who are uninvolved |
| Pre-conventional | This stage is based on obedience & punishment. Focus is on the consequence of actions rather than the intentions |
| conventional | This stage is based on relationships & social roles. Focus is on fulfilling social roles and maintain obedience to have an organized & functioning society |
| post-conventional | This stage is based on values & principles. Focus is on the realization that different values come from different cultures and individual principles may transcend obedience to the law |
| Elizabeth Kübler-Ross | 1926-2004; Field: development; Contributions: 5 stages of grief (1. death, 2. anger/resentment, 3. bargaining with God, 4. depression, 5. acceptance) |
| zone of proximal development | the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. |
| motivation | a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior |
| instinct | a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned |
| physiological need | a basic bodily requirement |
| drive-reduction theory | the idea that a physiological need creates and aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need |
| homeostasis | a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state, the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level |
| incentive | a positive or negative environment stimulus that motivates behavior |
| Yerkes-Dodson law | the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases |
| hierarchy of needs | Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the first base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher- level safety needs and then psychological needs become active |
| glucose | the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. when its level is low, we feel hunger |
| set point | the point at which your "weight thermostat" may be set. when your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight |
| basal metabolic rate | the body's resting rate of energy output |
| obesity | defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher. (overweight individuals have a BMI of 25 or higher) |
| asexual | having no sexual attraction to others |
| testosterone | the most important male sex hormone. both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristic during puberty |
| estrogens | sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. estrogen levels peak during ovulation. in non-human mammals, this promotes sexual receptivity |
| sexual response cycle | the 4 stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson, excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution |
| refractory period | in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm |
| affiliation need | the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group |
| ostracism | deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups |
| narcissism | excessive self-love and self-absorption |
| achievement motivation | a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard |
| grit | in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals |
| Abraham Maslow | - humanistic psychologist who created Maslow's hierarchy of needs, focused on positive qualities in people, supported investigating peak experiences |
| sexual disorders | problem consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning |
| lateral hypothalamus | When stimulated it makes you hungry |
| ventromedical hypothalamus | When stimulated you feel full. |
| emotion | a response of the whole organism, involving 1. physiological arousal 2. expressive behavior 3. conscious experience |
| James-Lange theory | the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion- arousing stimulus: 1st body then 2nd emotion |
| Cannon-Bard theory | the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers 1. physiological responses 2. the subjective experience of emotion. body and emotion happen at the same time |
| two-factor theory/ Schachter-Singer | theory that to experience emotion one must 1.be physically aroused 2. cognitively label the arousal 1st body and cognition then 2nd emotion |
| Lazarus theory | thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal 1st cognition |
| Zajonc LeDoux theory | cognitive arousal sometimes occurs without our awareness and defines our emotion -cognition happens automatically |
| polygraph | a machine used in attempts to detect lies that measure several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration, heart rate, and breathing changes) accompanying emotion |
| facial feedback theory | the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness |
| behavior feedback theory | the tendency of behavior to influence our own and other's thoughts, feelings and actions |
| stress | the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging |
| general adaptation syndrome (GAS) | Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases alarm, resistance, exhaustion |
| tend-and-befriend response | under stress, people (espically women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend) |
| health psychology | a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contributions to behavioral medicine |
| psychoneuroimmunology | the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health |
| coronary heart disease | the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle, the leading cause of death in many developing countries |
| type A | Friedman and Roseman's term for competitive hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive and anger-prone people |
| type B | Friedman and Roseman's term for easygoing, relaxed people |
| catharsis | in psychology, the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through actions/fantasy) relieves aggressive urges |
| aerobic exercise | sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness, also helps alleviate depression and anxiety |
| mindfulness meditation | a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a non-judgmental and accepting manner |
| feel-good do-good phenomenon | peoples tendency to be helpful when in a good mood |
| positive psychology | the scientific study of human flourishing with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive |
| subjective well-being | self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. used along with measures of objective well-being to evaluate people's quality of life |
| adaptation-level phenomenon | our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) related to a neural level defined by our prior experience |
| relative deprivation | the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself |
| William James | Worked with Lange to create the James-Lange theory of emotion |
| Walter Cannon | Worked with Philip Bard to create the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, also known as the Thalamic theory of emotion, is a physiological explanation of emotion |
| Stanley Schachter | was an American social psychologist best known for his development of the two factor theory of emotion in 1962 along with Jerome E. Singer. |
| Robert Zajonc | worked with LeDoux conducted research in the areas of social facilitation, and theories of emotion, such as the affective neuroscience hypothesis. created a theory that cognition occurs automatically and aside from emotion |
| Joseph LeDoux | worked with Zajonc concluded that emotions are "higher-order states" embedded in cortical circuits. cognition happens automatically |
| Richard Lazarus | Behavioral psychologists focused on reward and punishment as the causes of behavior and largely ignored the role of emotions. developed a theory of emotion called cognitive appraisal theory. |
| Paul Ekman | discovered that some facial expressions of emotion are universal while many of the apparent differences in facial expressions across cultures were due to context facial feedback theory |
| Kurt Lewin | suggests that the origin of behavior stems from underlying needs and forces |
| Hans Selye | was the first scientist to identify 'stress' as underpinning the nonspecific signs and symptoms of illness created (GAS) |
| Martin Seligman | positive psychology researched learned helplessness and positive emotions |
| approach-approach | Lewin’s Motivational Conflict Theory that a choice between two different alternatives that we like, but we can only pick one |
| avoidance-avoidance | Lewin’s Motivational Conflict Theory that we have to pick one choice or the other alternative, but dislike both. |
| approach-avoidance | Lewin’s Motivational Conflict Theory that a choice of whether to do something when it has both positive and negative qualities. |
| double approach-avoidance | Lewin’s Motivational Conflict Theory that we must choose between two things that each have both positive and negative qualities |
| stressor | the stimulus or challenge causing stress |
| stress reaction | physical and emotional response to stressor |
| Neo-Freudian / psychodynamic | followers of Freud. a Accept id, ego, superego, unconscious, defense mechanisms. Don't accept sex & aggression primary motivations |
| repression | unknowingly placing an unpleasant memory or thought in the unconscious |
| regression | reverting back to immature behavior from an earlier stage of development |
| displacement | redirecting unacceptable feelings from the original source to a safer, substitute target |
| sublimation | replacing socially unacceptable impulses with socially acceptable behavior |
| reaction formation | attribution one's own unacceptable feelings and thoughts to others and not yourself |
| rationalization | creating false excuses for one's unacceptable feelings, thoughts, or behavior |
| denial | blocking external events from awareness. If it was too much to handle, the person just refuses to experience it |
| oral | 0-18 months pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing) |
| anal | 18-36 months pleasure focuses on the bowel and bladder elimination (coping with demands for control) |
| phallic | 3-6 years pleasure zones is the genitals (coping with incestuous sexual feelings) |
| latency | 6 years to puberty dormant sexual feelings |
| genital | puberty and up maturation of sexual interests |
| personality | an individuals characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting |
| psychoanalysis | Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts, the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions |
| unconscious | according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. according to contemporary psychologists, info processing, of which we are unaware |
| free association | in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing |
| id | a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, the id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification |
| ego | the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality principle satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain |
| superego | the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgmental (the conscious) and for future aspirations |
| psychosexual stages | the childhood stages of developing (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones |
| Oedipus complex | according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires towards his mother and feelings of jealously and hatred for the rival father |
| identification | the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents values into their developing superego |
| fixation | in psychoanalytic theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved |
| defense mechanisms | in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality |
| repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| collective unconscious | Carl Jung's concept of a shared inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history |
| projective test | a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics |
| thematic apperception test TAT | a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes |
| Rorschach inkblot test | the most widely used projective test a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Herman Rorschach, seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots |
| terror-management theory | a theory of death-related anxiety, explores peoples emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impeding death |
| humanistic theories | theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth |
| hierarchy of needs | Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active |
| self-actualization | according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved the motivated to fulfill one's |
| self-transcendence | according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self |
| unconditional positive regard | a caring. accepting, nonjudgmental attitude which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance 1. acceptance 2. genuineness 3. empathy |
| self-concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question "who am I?" |
| trait | a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-reported inventories and peer reports |
| personality inventory | a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range o feelings and behaviors, used to asses selected personality traits |
| Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory | the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality test, originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use) this test is now used for many other screening purposes |
| empirically derived test | a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups |
| social-cognitive perspective | views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context |
| behavioral approach | focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development |
| reciprocal determinism | the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment |
| self | in contemporary psychology assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions |
| spotlight effect | overestimating others noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us) |
| self-esteem | one's feelings of high or low self-worth |
| self-efficacy | one's sense of competence and effectiveness |
| self-serving bias | a readiness to perceive oneself favorably |
| narcissism | excessive self-love and self-absorption |
| individualism | giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications |
| collectivism | giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly |
| Openness Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism | what does OCEAN stand for? |
| person-situation controversy | genuine personality traits that persist over time & across situations |
| stability of personality traits | interests, careers & relationships may change but most people presume the stability of personality traits |
| openness | being curious, original, creative, and open to new ideals |
| conscientiousness | being organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable |
| extroversion | being outgoing, talkative, sociable, and enjoying social situations |
| agreeableness | being affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm |
| neuroticism | being anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody |
| psychological disorder | |
| medical model | |
| epigenetics | |
| DSM-5 | |
| attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder ADHD | |
| anxiety disorders | |
| social anxiety | |
| generalized anxiety disorder | |
| panic disorder | |
| agoraphobia | |
| phobia | |
| obsessive- compulsive disorder |
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