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EPPP 2024 Physio
Subdomains: Sleep/Memory, Emotions & Stress, Endocrine Disorders
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What major structures are associated with memory? | Mammillary bodies, basal ganglia, cerebellum, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, supplementary motor area, thalamus |
| Who is patient H.M.? | He had his hippocampus, amygdala and medial temporal lobe removed. After surgery. his short-term and procedural memory was intact but his ability to form new declarative memories and remote episodic memory was diminished. |
| What are the different types of long-term memory? | Explicit : conscious, intentional recollection ↳ Episodic: Experienced events ↳ Semantic: Knowledge & concepts ↳ Declarative: Facts & events Implicit: unconscious and includes procedural ↳ Procedural: Skills & actions |
| How have discoveries about neural mechanisms and memory been made? | ➤Research conducted by Kandel and colleagues on sea slugs (Aplysia) which revealed that short-term storage of info = ↑ of serotonin release while long-term storage developed new synapses and changes in existing neurons. |
| What is long-term potentiation and what is the relationship to memory research? | ➤ Process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation and is linked to learning & memory ➤ LTP in animals and humans was first observed in glutamate receptors in the hippocampus |
| What is the relationship between memory and RNA synthesis? | RNA - necessary for protein synthesis Research has found that drugs that inhibit RNA around the time of training prevents the formation of long-term (but not short-term) memories. |
| Which areas are most responsible for implicit memories? | Cerebellum, basal ganglia & supplementary motor cortex |
| What is prospective memory? | Prospective memory: remembering to perform a planned action or recall an intention at some future point in time. |
| What are the types of prospective memory and the brain area that affects it? | Event based: remembering to do an intended action when triggered by external cue Time-based: remembering an intended action at a certain time without external cue Brain area associated: prefrontal cortex impacts event based memory more than time-based |
| What is the first systems in LeDoux's Theory of fear? | ➤ Subcortical (survival) system: reacts quickly/automatically to sensory info with physiological, defensive responses. Amygdala - major component of this system ➤ Low Road |
| What is the second systems in LeDoux's Theory of fear? | ➤ Cortical (conscious emotional) system: Processes info from senses, subcortical system and episodic/semantic memory using cognitive processes and creates conscious feeling of fear when it determines that stimulus is actually a threat. ➤ High road |
| What brain areas are involved in the cortical system of LeDoux's Two-System Theory? | Areas that process sensory information (eg: visual cortex) and areas involved in non-emotional conscious experiences (eg: prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex) |
| What is Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome? | The body's response to all types of stress is the same and involves 3 stages |
| What are the 3 stages to Selye's GAS? | Alarm Reaction: ↑ activity in sympathetic NS provides energy to respond to stress with fight/flight reaction Resistance: If stress persists, some functions become normal while cortisol remains ↑ to cope with stress Exhaustion: physiological breakdown |
| What are the criticisms of the GAS? | Research has found that physiological, psychological and behavioral responses to stress are not always the same and are affected by the type of stress amd a person's genetic makeup/previous experiences. |
| What is McEwen's Allostatic Load Model | Assumes that the brain = key stress organ and determines what is threatening/stressful and the physiological/behavioral responses. Amygdala, hippocampus & prefrontal cortex = mediators of these functions |
| What terms does McEwen use to describe the body's response to stress? | Allostasis→allostatic state→allostatic load→allostatic overload Consequences of allostatic load vary due to genetic makeup, resilience, perceptions about controllability of stressor |
| What are the processes in the Allostatic Load Model? | Allostasis=processes that allow body to have stability by adapting to change→allostatic state that can be maintained for limited time. Extended allostatic state=wear and tear on body and brain (allostatic load)→allostatic overload (impacts on health) |
| What is the facial feedback hypothesis and which theory of emotion does it align with most? | Facial expressions associated with specific emotions initiate physiological changes that are consistent with those emotions → Smiling makes us feel happy Aligned with: James Lange Theory |
| What is Weber's Law? | ➤ Mathematical equation to quantify the JND based on intensity of stimulus and mode of perception ➤ JND = a constant ratio of the original stimulus ➤ Eg: for touch/heaviness, the JND is a constant 2%; for vision/brightness, the JND is a constant 7.9% |
| What is Fechner's Law? | ➤ Explored how perceived intensity of a stimulus changes as the physical intensity changes ➤ Weber's Law + assumption that 1 JND = 1 unit of difference in perceived intensity ➤ If you put in two light bulbs, people will perceive it as 2x as bright |
| What intensities are Weber's & Fechner's Law better at? | Weber: mid-range intensities Fechner: more accurate than Weber's Law for stimuli at extreme intensities |
| What is Steven's Power Law? | ➤The relationship between perceived intensity and physical intensity is different for different perceptual stimuli ➤ Remember the graph from video showing line length, brightness & electric shock |
| What is Signal Detection Theory (SDT)? | ➤Assumes that perception is the outcome of both sensory & decision-making processes. ➤Decision making always includes uncertainty, which is caused by background noise (random neural activity, distractions, fatigue etc...) |
| What is the decision-making process affected by in SDT? | ➤Decision-making is affected by a person's sensitivity (ability to distinguish between stimulus & noise) & decision criterion (willingness to say a stimulus is present in ambiguous situations) ➤Greater sensitivity = ↑ accuracy in perceiving stimulus |
| What does a typical Signal Detection Theory experiment include? | Numerous trials where a noisy background is presented with a weak signal (eg: a tone) or no signal and asked to say yes if they detect a signal or no if they do not detect it |
| What are the possible decision outcomes in a SDT experiment? | Hit: when the stimulus is present and subject says it is False alarm: Stimulus is not present but subject says it is Miss: stimulus is present, person says it is not Correct rejection: no stimulus is present and subject says it is not |
| What are the limitations of Weber, Fechner & Steven's laws of perception? | ➤ Do not take into account other factors that influence perception (eg: some people are more willing to say they detect something with less evidence; noise in neural activity, cognition) |
| What is the Papez Circuit? | ➤Among 1st to link emotions to specific brain areas ➤Includes hippocampus, mammillary bodies, thalamus & cingulate gyrus |
| What reactions will occur for damage of each hemisphere? | Left = "catastrophic reaction" (depression, fear, anxiety, paranoia) Right = "indifference reaction" (inappropriate indifference and/or euphoria) |
| What occurs when the amygdala has bilateral lesions? | Loss of fear |
| What occurs when the amygdala is electrically stimulated? | Rage or fear |
| What occurs when the hypothalamus has bilateral lesions? | Rage |
| What occurs when the hypothalamus is electrically stimulated? | Pleasure or fear |
| What are the 5 theories of emotion? | ➤James Lange Theory ➤Canon-Bard Theory ➤Schacter & Singer Two Factor Theory - aka cognitive arousal theory ➤Lazarus' Cognitive Appraisal Theory ➤LeDoux's Two-System Theory (of fear) |
| Who is most likely to experience red/green color blindness and why? | ➤Men = most common b/c inheriting a single mutated gene from maternal side is sufficient to cause it *Women need to inherit two X chromosomes for gene to be expressed* |
| What are the risk factors for a CVA? | Hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, smoking, hardened arteries (atherosclerosis), heavy drinking, obesity, older age, male, African American & family history |
| What are the symptoms of a middle cerebral artery stroke? | Contralateral sensory loss, contralateral hemiparesis (weakness), hemiplegia (paralysis), contralateral homonymous hemianopsia (visual field loss), dysarthria (slurred speech), aphasia (for dom hem) or apraxia & contralateral neglect (when nondom hem) |
| What are the symptoms of a posterior cerebral artery stroke? | Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis, visual field loss, slurred speech, nausea & vomiting, memory loss |
| What are the symptoms of an anterior cerebral artery stroke? | Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis (especially in legs), ↓ insight & judgment, mutism, apathy, confusion, urinary incontinence |
| What are the causes of Parkinson's? | ➤↓ dopamine producing cells in substantia nigra & basal ganglia = motor symptoms ➤Excessive glutamate in basal ganglia linked to progression of symptoms ➤Breakdown of norepinephrine neurons in locus coeruleus = non-motor symptoms ➤ApoE gene |
| What are the causes of Hungtington's? | ➤Abnormalities in basal ganglia ➤Abnormal levels of GABA , glutamate & dopamine in basal ganglia ➤Autosomal dominant gene (single copy of the mutated gene (from one parent) is enough) - 50% of a child getting it |
| What are the symptoms of a temporal lobe focal onset seizure? | ➤Aura, strange odor/taste, rising sensation in stomach, sudden intense fear, deja vu (familiarity) or jamais vu (unfamiliarity), sweating, dilated pupils, tachycardia, autonomic symptoms (lip smacking, repeated chewing/swallowing, fidgeting) & automatisms |
| What are the symptoms of a frontal lobe focal onset seizure? | ➤Lasts >30s while asleep ➤Kicking, rocking, bicycle pedalling, abnormal body posturing, screams or laughter, autonomic symptoms |
| What are the symptoms of a parietal lobe focal seizure? | ➤Tingling, numbness, pain, feelings of movement, body image distortions (feeling body part is enlarged, shrunken or missing) |
| What are the symptoms of an occipital lobe focal seizure? | ➤Rapid eye blinking, eyelid flutter, involuntary eye movements, flashing or stationary bright light, multi-colored circular patterns and other visual hallucinations, partial blindness, impaired visual acuity or other visual impairments |
| What are the symptoms of a generalized onset nonmotor seizure? | ➤Brief loss of consciousness involving a blank stare and possibly eyelids flutter and eyes turn upwards Aka: Absence or petit mal |
| What are the symptoms of a generalized onset motor seizure? | ➤Change in consciousness, beginning with a tonic phase where muscles stiffen in face & limbs followed by a clonic phase where jerky movements in the arms and legs occur |
| What are the risk factors for primary hypertension? | ➤Obesity, smoking, excessive salt, stress, male, older age, African American & family history |
| What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism? | ➤ Too much thyroid hormones ➤ ↑ metabolism, ↑ heart rate, ↑ body temp, ↑ appetite with weight loss, heat intolerance, insonia, emotional lability, ↓attention span |
| What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism? | ➤ Too little thyroid hormones ➤↓ metabolism, ↓body temp, cold intolerance, ↓ sex drive, ↓ appetite with weight gain, ↓ heart rate, depression, lethargy, confusion, ↓ memory & concentration |
| What is antidiuretic hormone? | ➤ Responsible for the amount of water excreted in urine ➤ Produced by pituitary gland ➤ AKA vasopressin |
| What is hypoglycemia a result of? | ➤ Too much insulin from pancreas which ↓ blood glucose levels Causes: skipping meals, excessive exercise, tumor, high dose of insulin, excessive alcohol, adrenal/pituitary disorders |
| What are the symptoms of Type I & II Diabetes? | ➤Excessive hunger/thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, numb/tingling hands & feet, frequent infection, ↓ weight |
| What are Type I & Type II Diabetes? | Type I: autoimmune disease that destroys insulin producing cells in pancreas Type II: Pancreas produces too little insulin or the body cannot use the insulin that is being produced |
| What does an EEG do? | Measures brain activity via electrodes Useful to quickly see brain changes, diagnose seizures, brain injury, tumor, sleep disorders & confirming brain death |
| What are the types of neuroimaging techniques? | Structural: ↪CT Scan ↪MRI ↪DTI Functional: ↪PET ↪SPECT ↪fMRI |
| What do the structural neuroimaging techniques do? | ➤ Computerized Axial Tomography (CT): x-rays to obtain images of horizontal slices of the brain ➤ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): uses magnetic fields & radio waves to obtain cross-sectional images of the brain |
| What do the functional neuroimaging techniques do? | ➤Positron-Emission Tomography (PET): radioactive tracer taken up by active brain cells ➤Single Proton Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT): Same as PET but easier & ↓ money ➤Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): changes in blood oxygenation/flow |
| What are the symptoms of conduction aphasia? | ➤Effortless but incoherent speech and relatively intact comprehension ➤Occurs when the arcuate fasciculus is damaged, which connected Broca & Wernicke's Areas |
| What disorder is most commonly comorbid with a TBI, regardless of injury severity? | Major Depressive Disorder |
| Where does the middle cerebral artery supply blood to? | Frontal lobe & lateral temporal and parietal lobes |
| Where does the anterior cerebral artery supply blood to? | The frontal and parietal lobes |
| Where does the posterior cerebral artery supply blood to? | Temporal & occipital lobes |
| What % of people with Parkinson's experience depression? | Up to 50% |
| What are the symptoms of central diabetes insipidus? | ➤Result of insufficient ADH ➤Frequent urination, extreme thirst, dehydration, ↓ weight, ↓ blood pressure, constipation |
| What are the types of binocular cues used for depth perception? | ➤ Retinal disparity - eyes see objects from two different views (closer an object, the greater the disparity) ➤ Convergence - when eyes turn inward (converge) when an object gets closer and vice versa |
| What are the types of monocular cues used for depth perception? | ➤ Motion parallax - relative motion of objects ➤ Interposition - overlap of objects ➤ Linear perspective ➤ Texture gradients ➤ Relative size of objects |
| What cues are best for perceiving objects at a greater distance? | ➤ Motion parallax (the quicker movement of closer objects across the visual field), interposition (overlap) of objects, and linear perspective |
| What cues are best for perceiving objects at a close distance? | ➤ Retinal disparity (differences in retinal images in the left and right eyes) |
| ________ are responsible for visual acuity, color perception & are best in bright light; ___________ are responsible for peripheral vision & best in dim light | Cones; rods |
| ________________ _______ involve both eyes and are responsible for perception of close objects | Binocular cues |
| ____________ _______ involve one eye and are responsible for depth perception of far objects | Monocular cues |
| A __________ __________ _________ produce combination of cognitive, emotional and behavioral/physical like amnesia, nausea/vomiting, headaches, depression, irritability, sleep issues, aprosodia & seizures. | Traumatic Brain Injury |
| What are the initial symptoms of Huntington's? | Affective symptoms: depression, mood swings |
| ________ ________ involves a blockage in a cerebral artery by a blood clot | Ischemic Stroke |
| __________ ____________ involves a rupture in a cerebral artery within the brain or in the space between the membrane that covers the brain | Hemorrhagic stroke |
| What is an embolic stroke vs. thrombotic stroke? | Embolic: involves a clot occurring in the heart/elsewhere in the body and travelling to the brain Thrombotic: involves a clot occurring within the brain artery |
| What is dysarthria? | Slurred speech |
| What might hypothyroidism present as? | Depression |
| What might hyperthyroidism as clinically? | Anxiety & mania |
| What age does Type I diabetes typically present? | Usually before age 30 |
Created by:
JSalisbury
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