Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Tri 1
AP Test Review
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| structuralism | an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind |
| functionalism | a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish |
| experimental psychology | the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method |
| behaviorism | the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes; most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) |
| humanistic psychology | Emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth |
| psychology | the science of behavior and mental processes |
| nature-nurture issue | the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors; today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture |
| levels of analysis | the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon |
| biopsychosocial psychology | an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis |
| biological psychology | a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection |
| psychodynamic psychology | a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders |
| behavioral psychology | the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning |
| cognitive psychology | the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| social-cultural psychology | the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking |
| basic research | pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base |
| development psychology | the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span |
| educational psychology | the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning |
| personality psychology | the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting |
| social psychology | the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another |
| applied research | scientific study that aims to solve practical problems |
| industrial-organizational psychology | the applications of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces |
| human factors psychology | the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments |
| counseling psychology | a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being |
| clinical psychology | a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders |
| psychiatry | a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical (i.e. drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy |
| forensic psychology | Apply psychological principles to legal issues. |
| experimental psychology | Work on research to add new knowledge to the field |
| Wilhelm Wundt | Founder of scientific psychology Father of Psychology Structuralism |
| Edward Titchener | Structuralism Student of Wundt |
| Margaret Floy Washburn | First woman to complete PhD in psychology Structuralism |
| William James | wrote Principles of Psychology Functionalism |
| Mary Calkins | admitted to Harvard graduate seminar by William James all the men dropped out Finished PhD but was denied a degree & given one from sister school for women Later became a memory researcher & 1st female president of the American Psychological Association |
| Ivan Pavlov | Behavioral Approach Classical conditioning of dogs |
| JB Watson | Behavioral Approach Classical Aversive conditioning Little Albert Experiment |
| BF Skinner | Behavioral Approach Operant Conditioning (rewards/punishment) Skinner Box (pigeons) |
| Sigmund Freud | Psychoanalysis (Father of) |
| Carl Rogers | Humanistic Approach Unconditional Positive Regard |
| Abraham Maslow | Humanistic Approach Hierarchy of Needs |
| Jean Piaget | Cognitive Approach Cognitive development in children |
| critical thinking | thinking that does not blindly accept arguments or conclusions. rather it examines assumptions, appraises the source, recognizes hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. |
| empiricism | the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experiment enable scientific knowledge. |
| introspection | the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes |
| cognitive neuroscience | the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition includes perception, thinking, memory, and language |
| natural selection | the principle that inherited traits that better enable a organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will ( in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on the succeeding generations |
| behavior genetics | the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior |
| culture | the characteristic attitudes and behaviors of a particular group within society, such as a profession, social class, or age group. that are passed down though generations |
| positive psychology | the scientific study of human flourishing with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive |
| psychometrics | the scientific study of measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits |
| community psychology | a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups |
| Gestalt | Part and whole Psychologists who emphasize the tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. |
| theory | an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events |
| hypothesis | a testable prediction often implied by a theory |
| operational definition | a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. |
| replication | repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced |
| case study | a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
| naturalistic observation | a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation |
| survey | a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group |
| sampling bias | a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample |
| random sample | a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
| experiment | research method, an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variable), observe the effect on some behavior/ mental process (dependent variable). by random assignment of participants the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors |
| experimental group | in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable |
| control group | in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrast with the experimental group and serves as comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. |
| random assignment | assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. |
| confounding variable | a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results |
| dependent variable | in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated |
| validity | the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to |
| double-blind procedure | an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo. commonly used in drug studies |
| placebo effect | experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. |
| independent variable | is an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. |
| hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (also known as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon |
| regression towards the mean | the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) towards the average |
| illusory correlation | perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger- than - actual relationship |
| scatterplot | a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the value of two variables, the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation. |
| correlation coefficient | a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00) |
| correlation | a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other |
| population | all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn |
| statistical significance | a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance |
| inferential statistics | numerical data that allows one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population |
| variable | anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure |
| normal curve | a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean, and fewer and fewer near the extremes |
| standard deviation | a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
| range | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
| skewed distribution | a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value |
| median | the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it, and half are below it |
| mode | the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution |
| histogram | a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution |
| descriptive statistics | numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. includes measures of central tendency and measure of variation |
| debriefing | the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants |
| informed consent | giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether the wish to participate |
| mean | the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scored and then dividing by the number of scores |
| nervous system | the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems |
| central nervous system CNS | the brain and spinal cord |
| peripheral nervous system | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body |
| Nerves | bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the CNS with the muscles, glands, and sense organs |
| sensory neurons (afferent) | neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord |
| motor neuron (Efferent) | neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands |
| interneurons | neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. also called the skeletal nervous system |
| autonomic nervous system | the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (like the heart). its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms |
| sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy |
| parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy |
| reflex | a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response |
| endocrine system | the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream |
| hormones | chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues |
| adrenal glands | a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress |
| pituitary glands | the endocrine system's most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. |
| neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system |
| cell body | the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cells life-support center |
| dendrites | a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages conducting impulses towards the cell body |
| axon | the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands |
| myelin sheath | a fatty tissues layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next |
| glial cells (glia) | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory |
| action potential | a neural impulse, a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon |
| threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse |
| refractory period | in neural processing, a brief resting period that occurs after a neuron has fired, subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state |
| all-or-none response | a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing |
| synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrites or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft |
| neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel acrossed the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, influences how neurons will generate a neural impulse |
| reuptake | a neurotransmitter's absorption by the sending neuron |
| endorphins | "morphine within" -natural opiate- like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure |
| agonist | a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action |
| antagonist | a molecule that inhabits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action |
| lesion | tissue destruction. a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue |
| EEG | an amplified recording of the wave of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp |
| MEG | a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity |
| CT | a series of X-ray photos taken from different angles an combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. also called a CAT scan |
| PET | a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task |
| MRI | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer- generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy |
| fMRI | a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure |
| brainstem | the oldest part of the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions |
| medulla | the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing |
| thalamus | the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla |
| reticular formation | a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus an plays an important role in controlling arousal |
| cerebellum | the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, an enabling nonverbal learning and memory |
| limbic system | neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. includes amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus |
| amygdala | 2 lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion |
| hypothalamus | maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward |
| hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events |
| cerebral cortex | the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center |
| frontal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgement |
| parietal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position |
| occipital lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields |
| temporal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear |
| motor cortex | an areas at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
| somatosensory cortex | an areas at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning remembering, thinking, ad speaking. |
| neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons |
| corpus collosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them |
| split brain | a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's 2 hemispheres by cutting the corpus callosum fibers connecting them |
| consciousness | our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment |
| cognitive neuroscience | the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language |
| dual processing | the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks |
| blind sight | a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it. |
| sequential processing | processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems |
| parallel processing | processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy |
| behavior genetics | the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior |
| heredity | the genetic transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring |
| environment | every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us |
| chromosomes | threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes |
| DNA | a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes |
| genes | the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins |
| genome | the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes |
| identical (monozygotic) twins | develop fro a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms |
| fraternal (dizygotic) twins | develop from separate fertilized eggs. they are genetically no closer that ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment |
| heritability | the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. the heritability of a trait may vary,depending on the range of populations and environments studied |
| interaction | the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (environment) depends on another factor (heredity) |
| molecular genetics | the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes |
| molecular behavior genetics | the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior |
| epigenetics | "above" "in addition to" genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection |
| natural selection | the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations |
| mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a change |
| social script | a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations |
| sleep | a periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (adapted from Derment 1999) |
| circadian rhythm | our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle |
| REM sleep | rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active |
| alpha waves | the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state |
| NREM sleep | non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except fro REM sleep |
| hallucinations | false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus |
| hypnagogic sensations | bizarre experiences, such as jerking, or a feeling of falling/ floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep |
| delta waves | the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3 |
| suprachiasmatic nucleus | a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus the controls circadian rhythm. in response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness |
| insomnia | recurring problems in falling/staying asleep |
| narcolepsy | a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at opportune times |
| sleep apnea | a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations (stop) breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings |
| night terrors | a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within 2-3 hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. |
| dream | a sequence of images, emotions, thoughts passing though a sleeping person's mind |
| manifest content | according to Freud the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream |
| latent content | according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream |
| REM rebound | the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation |
| psychoactive drug | a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods |
| substance use disorder | a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk |
| tolerance | the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take anger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect |
| withdrawal | the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing and addictive drug or behavior |
| depressants | drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) |
| alcohol use disorder | alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use. also known as alcoholism |
| barbiturates | drugs that depress central nervous system activity; reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement. |
| opiates | opium ad its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety |
| stimulants | drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine and ecstasy) that excite neural activity ans speed up body functions |
| nicotine | a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco. |
| cocaine | a powerful and addictive stimulant deprived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria |
| amphetamines | drugs, such as methamphetamine, that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes |
| methamphetamines | a powerful addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerates body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels |
| ecstasy MDMA | a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term heath risks and long-term harm to serotonin - producing neurons and to mood and cognition |
| hallucinogens | psychedelic (mind- manifesting) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input |
| near death experience | an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death often similar to drug-induced hallucinations |
| THC | the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations |
| LSD | a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid |
| hypnosis | a social interaction is which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. |
| posthypnotic suggestion | a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians |
| dissociation | a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others |
| Paul Broca | Broca's area, language production in the left frontal lobe. |
| Carl Wernicke | Found another "language center" located in the left hemispheres temporal lobe. Wernicke's Aphasia. Speech comprehension. If damaged people can't make sense when they speak. |
| Roger Sperry | American psychologist who researched the brain and specialized in split-brain patients |
| Michael Gazaniga | Field cognitive neuroscience Studied the neural basis of mind and human split-brain research. Researched how the cerebral hemispheres |
| Charles Darwin | A British naturalist created the theory of evolution, his principles of natural selection and adaptation left an influence on modern |
| Sigmund Freud | psychoanalytic/ psychoanalysis theory impacts the unconscious mind, emotions, desires, and feelings, believed humans are driven |
| William James | Functionalism studied how humans use perception to function in our environment |
| Ernest Hillgard | Studied how that a hypnotic trance includes a "hidden observer" suggesting that there is some subconscious control during |
| sleep debt | loss of sleep (particularly REM) that often results in REM rebound when sleep occurs |
| plasticity | the brain;s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience |
| sensation | the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment |
| sensory receptors | sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli |
| perception | the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events |
| bottom up processing | analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
| top down processing | information processing guided by higher-level mental processes as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experiences and expectations |
| selective attention | the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus |
| inattentional blindness | failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere |
| change blindness | failing to notice changes in the environment a form a inattentional blindness |
| transduction | conversion of one form of energy into another. in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret |
| psychophysics | the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them |
| absolutes threshold | the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time |
| signal detection theory | theory predicting how/when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends on a person's experience, expectations motivation and alertness |
| subliminal | below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness |
| difference threshold | the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference |
| priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response |
| Weber's law | the principle that, to be perceived as different two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) |
| sensory adaptation | diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation |
| perceptual set | a mental predisposition to perceive on thing and not another |
| extrasensory perception | the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input, includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition |
| parapsychology | the study of paranormal phenomena including ESP and psychokinesis |
| wavelength | the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of gamma rays to the long pulses of radio transmission |
| hue | the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light, what we know as color blue, green, etc. |
| intensity | the amount of energy in alight wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height) |
| cornea | the eye's clear, protective outer, layer covering the pupil and iris |
| pupil | the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters |
| iris | a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening |
| lens | the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina |
| retina | the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information |
| accommodation | the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina |
| rods | retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement, necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond |
| cones | retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations |
| optic nerve | the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain |
| blind spot | the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a 'blind' spot because no receptor cells are located there |
| fovea | the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster |
| young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory | three color theory, the theory that the retina contains 3 different types of color receptors, one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one the blue. Which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color |
| opponent-process theory | the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) enable color vision. some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red, others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green |
| feature detectors | nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus,such as shape, angle, or movement. |
| Gestalt | an organized whole. psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes |
| figure-ground | the organization of the visual fields into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground) |
| grouping | the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups |
| depth perception | the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional, allows us to judge distance |
| visual cliff | a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals |
| binocular cue | a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of 2 eyes |
| retinal disparity | a binocular cue for perceiving depth. by comparing retinal images from the 2 eyes, the brain computes distance, the greater the disparity (difference) between the 2 images, the closer the object |
| monocular cue | a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone |
| phi phenomenon | an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession |
| perceptual constancy | perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change |
| color constancy | perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object |
| perceptual adaptation | the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field |
| audition | the sense or act of hearing |
| frequency | the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example per second) |
| pitch | a tone's experienced highness/lowness, depends on frequency |
| middle ear | the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window |
| cochlea | a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear, sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses |
| inner ear | the inner most part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. |
| sensorineural hearing loss | hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves, the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness |
| conduction hearing loss | a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea |
| cochlear implant | a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea |
| place theory | in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated |
| frequency theory | in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. also called temporal theory |
| gate-control theory | the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals/allows them to pass on to the brain the gate is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers info coming from brain |
| olfaction | the sense of smell |
| kinesthesia | our movement sense, our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body arts |
| vestibular sense | our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance |
| sensory interaction | the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste |
| embodied cognition | the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognition preference and judgements |
| Gustav Fechner | 1801-1887; Field: perception; Contributions: stated that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportionate to the # of JND's that the stimulus causing the experiences above the absolute threshold |
| Ernst Weber | 1795-1878; Field: perception; Contributions: just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law; Studies: 1st study on JND |
| David Hubel | psychologists; sensation and perception--discovered feature detectors, groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual stimuli |
| Torsten Wiesel | Along with David Hubel discovered feature detector groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual images |
| context effect | may trigger different perceptions because of a differing set or immediate context ex: hear sad music & see sad words Mourning/morning, die, /dye, pain/pane |
| stroboscopic movement | Brain perceives continuous movement in rapid series of slightly varying images |
| learning | the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors |
| habituation | decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus |
| associative learning | learning that certain events occur together the events may be two stimulus (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning) |
| stimulus | any event or situation that evokes a response |
| respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus |
| operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences |
| cognitive learning | the acquisition of mental information, whether be observing events, by watching others, or through language |
| classical conditioning | a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli, as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food) |
| behaviorism | the view that psychology 1. should be an objective science that 2. studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most researcher today agree with 1 but not 2 |
| neutral stimulus NS | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning |
| unconditioned stimulus UCS | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally/ automatically triggers an unconditioned response |
| unconditioned response UCR | in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth) |
| conditioned response CR | in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus |
| conditioned stimulus CS | in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus. comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| acquisition | in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response |
| higher-order conditioning | a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. also called second-order conditioning |
| extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response, occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus, occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced |
| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
| generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
| discrimination | in classical conditioning the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
| operant conditioning | a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punishment |
| law of effect | Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
| operant chamber | in operant conditioning research, a chamber (Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking |
| reinforcement | in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
| shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
| discriminative stimulus | in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement) |
| positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response |
| negative reinforcement | increasing behavior by stopping/ removing aversive stimuli. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that when, removed after a response, strengthens the response. Not a punishment |
| primary reinforcement | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
| reinforcement schedule | a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced |
| continuous reinforcement schedule | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
| partial reinforcement schedule | reinforcing a response only part of the time, results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
| fixed-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses |
| variable- ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
| fixed-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
| variable- interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
| punishment | an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows |
| biofeedback | a system for electronically recording, amplifying and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension |
| preparedness | a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value |
| instinctive drift | the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns |
| cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it |
| latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
| insight | a sudden realization of a problem's solution, contrast with strategy-based solutions |
| intrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake |
| extrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment |
| problem-focused coping | attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor |
| emotion-focused coping | attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction |
| personal control | our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless |
| learned helplessness | the hopelessness ad passive resignation an animal or person learning when unable to avoid repeated aversive events |
| external locus of control | the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate |
| internal locus of control | the perception that we control our own fate |
| self control | the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards |
| observational learning | learning by observing others. Also called social learning |
| positive reinforcement | adding desirable stimulus to increase behavior |
| negative reinforcement | removing undesirable stimulus to increase behavior |
| positive punishment | increasing undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior |
| negative punishment | removing desirable stimulus to decrease behavior |
| conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer, also known as a secondary reinforcer |
| modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
| mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we preform certain actions or observe another doing so. the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy |
| prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior |
| radical behaviorism | belief that all external behavior, or internal behavior events such as feeling and thoughts – are ultimately learned and controlled by the relationships between the situation that immediately precedes the behavior and the consequences that follow it |
| memory | the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information |
| recall | a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test |
| recognition | a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned as on a multiple choice test |
| relearning | a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again |
| encoding | the process of getting information into the memory system |
| storage | the process of retaining encoded info over time |
| retrieval | the process of getting info out of memory storage |
| parallel processing | processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously, the brain's natural mode of info processing for many functions |
| sensory memory | the immediate very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system |
| short-term memory | activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the info is stored or forgotten |
| long-term memory | the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system includes knowledge, skills, and experiences |
| working memory | a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual info, and of info retrieved from long-term memory |
| explicit memory | retention of facts and experiences that one con consciously know and declare also called declarative memory |
| effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
| automatic processing | unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned info, such as word meaning |
| implicit memory | retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independently of conscious recollection ( non-declarative memory) |
| iconic memory | a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
| echoic memory | a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
| chunking | organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically |
| mnemonics | memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| spacing effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice |
| testing effect | enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading info. also referred to as retrieved practice effect or test enhanced learning |
| shallow processing | encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words |
| deep processing | encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield the best retention |
| semantic memory | explicit memory of facts and general knowledge, one of our 2 conscious memory systems |
| episodic memory | explicit memory of personally experienced events, one of our 2 conscious memory systems |
| hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system, helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts/events for storage |
| memory consolidation | the neural storage of a long-term memory |
| flashbulb memory | a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| long term potentiation | an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, a neural basis for learning and memory |
| priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory |
| encoding specificity principle | the idea that uses and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it |
| mood congruent memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
| serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list |
| anterograde amnesia | an inability to form new memories |
| retrograde amnesia | an inability to retrieve information from one's past |
| proactive interference | the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new info |
| retroactive interference | the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old info |
| repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| reconsolidation | a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again |
| misinformation effect | occurs when misleading info has distorted one's memory of an event |
| source amnesia | faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned or imagined. along with misinformation is the heart of false memories |
| deja vu | that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before" cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience |
| connectionism | memories emerge from interconnected neural networks |
| semantic encoding | The meaning of words. put it in your own words/connect words to you |
| cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people |
| prototype | a mental image or best example of a category matching new items to a prototype provides a quick/easy method for sorting items into categories |
| creativity | the ability to produce new and valuable ideas |
| convergent thinking | narrowing available problem solutions to determine the single best solution |
| divergent thinking | expanding the number of possible problem solutions, creative thinking that diverges in different directions |
| algorithm | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. contrasts with heuristics |
| heuristic | a simple thinking strategy, that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently, usually speedier and more error-prone that an algorithm |
| insight | a sudden realization of a problem's solution, contrasts with strategy- based solutions |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence |
| fixation | in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, an obstacle to problem solving |
| mental set | a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past |
| intuition | an effortless, immediate automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning |
| repressentativeness heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seen to represent, or match, particular prototypes, may lead us to ignore other relevant info |
| availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common |
| overconfidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct, to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs/judgements |
| belief perseverance | clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| framing | the way an issue is posed, how an issue is worded can significantly, affect decisions and judgments |
| language | our spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning |
| phoneme | in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit |
| morpheme | in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning, may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) |
| grammar | in a language, a system of rule that enables us to communicate with and understand others. semantics is the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences |
| babbling stage | beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language |
| one word stage | the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2 during which a child speaks mostly in single words |
| two word stage | beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two- word statements |
| telegraphic speech | early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram "go car" using mostly nouns and verbs |
| aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to the Broca's area (impairing speech) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding of speech) |
| broca's area | helps control language expression, an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech |
| wernicke's area | a brain's area involved in language comprehension and expression, usually in the left temporal lobe |
| linguistic determinism | the strong form of Whorf's hypothesis that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us |
| linguistic influence | the weaker form of "linguistic relativity", the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world views "relative to" our culture language) |
| functional fixedness | Thinking of things only in terms of useful functions |
| intelligence | the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations |
| general intelligence | according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task as an intelligence test |
| factor analysis | a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test, used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlies a person's total score |
| savant syndrome | a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing |
| grit | in psychology a passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals |
| emotional intelligence | the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions |
| intelligence test | a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores |
| achievement test | a test designed to assess what a person has learned |
| aptitude test | a test designed to predict a person's future performance, aptitude is the capacity to learn |
| mental age | a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet, the level of performance typically associated with kids of a certain chronological age. |
| Stanford-Binet | the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test |
| intelligence quotient | defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100. IQ=ma/ca*100 |
| Wechsler adult intelligence scale | the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests, they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests |
| standardization | defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group |
| normal curve | the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall between the average, and fewer an fewer fall near the extremes |
| reliability | the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as associated by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting |
| validity | the extent to which a test measures or predicts what if is supposed to |
| content validity | the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest |
| predictive validity | the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict, it is assessed by comparing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior also called criterion- related validity |
| cohort | a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period |
| crystallized intelligence | our accumulated knowledge an verbal skills, tends to increase with age |
| fluid intelligence | our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, tends to decrease with age especially during late adulthood |
| cross-sectional study | research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time |
| longitudinal study | research that follows and retests the same people over time |
| intellectual disability | a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life (formerly mental retardation) |
| down syndrome | a condition of mild to serve intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 |
| heritability | the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. the heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied |
| stereotype threat | a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype |
| Charles Spearman | believed in one general intelligence (g factor) a common skill set underlies all intelligent behavior |
| L.L. Thurstone | believed in several factors of intelligence |
| Howard Gardner | 8 multiples of intelligence: visual, linguistic, logical/ mathematical, musical, bodily & kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal |
| Robert Sternberg | 3 types of Intelligence Analytical – intelligence tests Creative – novel situations/ideas Practical – tasks |
| Daniel Goleman | Social/ Emotional intelligence Perceive recognizes emotions in faces music stories Understand predicts emotions & how/why they change Manage knows how to express emotions in different situations Use emotions to facilitate adaptive or creative thinking |
Created by:
Addi678
Popular Psychology sets