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AP Psych Final
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| introspection | looking inward |
| behavioral approach | focuses on what can be seen and measured only (learned); idea of rewards, punishments, and modeling; Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura |
| psychodynamic/psychoanalytic approach | looking back at your past; unconscious motives and conflicts; Freud |
| cognitive approach | study of mental processes; thinking; how we process, store and interpret information |
| humanistic approach | idea that we are our best self when others help us reach our full potential; Rogers, Maslow |
| biological approach | things we can touch/physical; study of brain, neurons, DNA, etc.; observable |
| evolutionary approach | study of how traits/behaviors evolve; Darwin |
| social-cultural approach | studies the way we act based on the people around us; how people influence one another |
| biopsychosocial | using multiple approaches in a situation |
| Gestalt approach | the whole is greater than the individual parts; similar to holistic view |
| John Locke | wrote that we are born with a "blank slate" (tabula rasa); knowledge comes from learning from experience |
| William Wundt | created 1st psych lab |
| Edward Titchener | structuralism |
| William James | functionalism |
| Mary Calkins | first woman to enter a Ph.D. psych program with the help of James |
| Margaret Washburn | first woman to earn a Ph.D. |
| B.F. Skinner | father of behaviorism; operant conditioning; rat experiment |
| behavioralism | measure of only external, observable behavior; pavlov, watson, skinner; "can't see it, don't study it" |
| in the 1920s, psych went from one school of thought to another | introspection to behaviorism |
| Sigmund Freud | studied psychodynamic psych |
| case study | study of individual(s) in hopes to describe their situation |
| survey | questionnaire administered to a selected group of people |
| naturalistic observation | study of animal or human behavior in natural setting without interference |
| longitudinal study | |
| cross-sectional | |
| ex-post facto | |
| experiment | only thing that proves cause and effect |
| operational definition | precise and carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study; necessary for accurate repetition |
| confounding variable | unknown variable the researcher fails to control that is causing the outcome; third or missing variable problem |
| independent variable | the variable that I change; more sunshine means more happiness > sunshine |
| dependent variable | the variable that changes; more sunshine means more happiness > happiness |
| control group | group that receives placebo (no change) but they think they are receiving treatment |
| experimental group | group that receives treatment |
| central nervous system | responsible for coordinating incoming sensory messages and outgoing motor messages |
| peripheral nervous system | connects body to the CNS by gathering information from the senses to CNS and transmitting messages from the CNS to body |
| somatic nervous system | controls body's skeletal muscles |
| autonomic nervous system | controls glands and muscles of internal organs; operates automatically |
| parasympathetic nervous system | calms the body, conserving energy (rest or digest) |
| sympathetic nervous system | arouses body, mobilizing energy (fight-or-flight) |
| action potential | brief electrical charge that travels down an axon |
| resting state | period before neuron fires where nothing is happening; gates of axon are closed |
| polarized | positive ions are on outside and negative ions on inside, causing the neuron to be -charged or ____ |
| selectively permeable | axon membrane's choice to allow or prevent ion exchange |
| refractory state | neuron is resting and paused until axon returns to its resting state |
| reuptake | neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron |
| dendrite | bushy, branching extensions on a neuron that RECEIVE messages from other neurons |
| soma | part of neuron that contains the nucleus; cell's life-support center |
| axon | part of neuron that passes electric messages from the soma to the terminals |
| terminal | ends of axon containing terminal buttons that store neurotransmitters |
| acetylcholine | tells muscles to fire; +muscle spasms, -muscle paralysis and Alzheimer's |
| dopamine | controls mood/emotion; +schizophrenia and drug addiction, -Parkinson's disease |
| serontonin | happy drug, hunger, sleep +hallucinations -depression and mood/eating/sleep disorders |
| norepinephrine | coffee drug, alertness, arousal, fight-or-flight; +anxiety -depression |
| GABA | sleep/wake cycles +sleep disorders -anxiety, epilepsy, insomnia, Huntington's disease |
| glutamate | building long-term memory; +anxiety, migraines, seizures |
| EEG | records the waves of electrical activity across the brain's surface w electrodes; used to get a picture of overall brain activity; functional imaging |
| CT/CAT | x-rays that show size and location of brain's abnormalities; structural imaging |
| PET | use of radioactive glucose to determine location of brain activity; functional imaging |
| MRI | uses magnetic field and radio waves; distinguishes btw diff. brain tissue types; structural imaging |
| fMRI | measures movement of blood molecules; shows structural and functional imaging |
| makes up brainstem+ | medulla, pons, reticular formation, thalamus, cerebellum |
| medulla | controls heart rate and breathing |
| pons | controls sleep; peacemaker |
| reticular formation | filters incoming sensory stimuli (selective attention) |
| thalamus | relay station for incoming and outgoing sensory information to and from correct part of brain |
| makes up limbic system | hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus |
| hypothalamus | directs pituitary gland; maintains balance > drives, rewards, and emotions |
| pituitary gland | master gland; secretes many diff. hormones that regulate other glands |
| amygdala | center for emotion, fear and aggression |
| hippocampus | where long-term memory is stored |
| makes up cerebral cortex | frontal lobe, motor cortex, sensory cortex, parietal lob, occipital lobe, temporal lobe |
| frontal lobe | lobe controlling decision making and analysis |
| motor cotex | controls voluntary movement; neurons travel out cortex |
| sensory cortex | registers sensation; neurons travel into cortex |
| parietal lobe | lobe controlling spatial reasoning and body sensation |
| occipital lobe | lobe controlling vision |
| temporal lobe | lobe controlling hearing |
| absolute threshold | minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus |
| weber's law | To be able to tell the difference between degrees of stimulation, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage; change in difference threshold |
| olfaction | another word for smell |
| feature detectors | nerve cells located in the visual cortex of the occipital lobe that respond to a scene’s edges, lines, angles and movements |
| parallel processing | when brain works to encode multiple things at once |
| iris | a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening by expanding and contracting over the pupil |
| lens | transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina |
| pupil | small adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light passes |
| cornea | the eye’s clear, protective outer layer covering the pupil and iris. ; where light enters the eye first |
| blind spot | point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptor cells (rods or cones) are located there |
| retina | light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information |
| fovea | central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster; area of greatest sharpness of focus |
| optic nerve to brain's visual cortex | leaves through the back of the eye and carries the neural impulses from the eye to the brain |
| main parts of the ear | outer, middle, inner |
| figure-ground | organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings |
| selctive attention | tendency to focus on just a particular stimulus among the many that are being received |
| monocular cues | depth cues available to each eye separately |
| binocular cues | depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes |
| sleep spindles | bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity that occur in NREM-2 |
| delta waves | large slow waves that occur in deepest sleep |
| sleep apnea | when you stop breathing momentarily during sleep |
| insomnia | difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep |
| narcolepsy | suddenly falling asleep w/o warning during waking hours |
| REM | rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur |
| REM rebound | when you have a chance to fall asleep after sleep deprivation you have a tendency to get more REM sleep than you would normally get |
| lucid dreaming | |
| manifest content | remembered storyline of a dream |
| latent content | the underlying meaning of a dream |
| stimulants | increase activity in part of NS; caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, ecstasy |
| depressants | slow down a part of the NS; alcohol, barbiturates, opiates |
| hallucinogens | changes the way nerve cells in your brain communicate; LSD, peyote, ketamine, marijuana |
| tolerance | when more substance is required to obtain the original effect |
| withdrawl | physical discomfort and effects when the substance is stopped post addiction |
| Ivan Pavlov | classical conditioning; dog salivating |
| respondent behavior | |
| UCS | stimulus that naturally causes an organism to responds in a specific way |
| UCR | response that takes place in an organism whenever an unconditioned stimulus occurs |
| NS | stimulus that does NOT naturally cause a response in the organism |
| CS | An originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired response in an organism when presented alone |
| CR | After conditioning, the response an organism produces when only a conditioned stimulus is presented |
| taste aversion | tendency to avoid or make negative associations with a food that you ate just before getting sick; John Garcia |
| learned helplessness | a mental state that arises in an organism that believes punishment is inescapable; Martin Seligman |
| classical conditioning | type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus becomes to be elicited by a different formally neutral stimulus |
| operant conditioning | type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishments |
| E.L. Thorndike | law of effect |
| positive/negative reinforcers | |
| positive/negative punishers | |
| fixed ratio | |
| fixed interval | |
| variable ratio | |
| variable interval | |
| encoding | |
| storing | |
| retrieving | |
| order of memory processing | sensory memory > short term memory > long term memory |
| forgetting curve | Ebbinghaus |
| Ebbinghaus | |
| John Garcia | |
| Martin Seligman | |
| John Watson | ran the experiment with baby Albert and the bunny; classical conditioning |
| flashbulb memory | |
| episodic memory | |
| semantic memory | |
| serial position effect | the idea that in learning a list of items or meeting a line of people, you are most likely to remember the first (primary) and the last (recency) |
| mneumonics | |
| method of loci | |
| peg words | |
| elaborative rehearsal | |
| self-referent processing | |
| proactive interference | old learning interrupts new learning |
| retroactive interference | new learning interrupts what's already been learned |
| retrograde amnesia | |
| anterograde amnesia | |
| misinformation effect | |
| Elizabeth Loftus | |
| phonemes | the most basic "unit" of language; refers to sounds |
| morphemes | |
| syntax | |
| semantics | |
| receptive | |
| productive language | |
| Noam Chomsky | |
| concepts | |
| cognition | |
| prototypes | schemas |
| algorithms | |
| heuristics | |
| insight | |
| inductive reasoning | |
| deductive reasoning | |
| mental set | |
| functional fixedness | |
| availability heuristic | idea that we assume something more likely to occur or be true if it is commonly seen as possible; stereotypes or rare extreme events that are shown often on the news |
| representativeness heuristic | recurrence of our prototype |
| framing | |
| anchoring effect | |
| confirmation bias | searching for facts that only support your predisposed opinion |
| hindsight bias | tendency to believe, after learning something, that you would have done it |
| overconfidence bias | the idea that we tend to think we know more than we do |
| Charles Spearman | G factor |
| Raymond Cattell | fluid vs crystallized intelligence |
| fluid intelligence | |
| crystallized intelligence | |
| Robert Sternberg | triarchic theory |
| triarchic theory | |
| Haward Gardener | multiple intelligences |
| Alfred Binet | mental age |
| Lewis Terman | Stanford-Binet |
| David Weschsler | WAIS, WISC |
| WAIS vs WISC | test for adults vs children |
| standardization | |
| reliability | |
| validity | a test's ability to provide results that represent the test's purpose |
| Albert Bandura | ran the Bobo doll experiment; showed that behavior is mirrored |
| Charles Darwin | studied evolution and its relationship with nature and nurture |
| Rodgers | studied client centered therapy; humanistic perspective |
| Maslow | hierarchy of needs - concerned about moving up; humanistic perspective |
| structuralism | school of thought that stressed the basic units of thought; break down of the atoms and what they experience |
| functionalism | theory concerned with how organism uses it abilities in its environment; knowledge of whole system |
| descriptive research | |
| correlation shows ____ not ___ | relationship; causation |
| Phineas Gage | experienced damage to his frontal lobe > could no longer filter emotional reactions |
| measures of central tendency | mean, median, and mode |
| what follows a normal distribution | human attributes |
| debriefing | explanation of an experimental process post-op |
| positive correlation | two variables increase or decrease in parallel |
| negative correlation | one variable increases as the other decreases |
| genome | set of complete instructions for making an organism |
| heritability | the proportion of variation in a population trait that can be attributed to inherited genetic factors |
| the endocrine system | the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream; email |
| hormones | chemical messengers released into the bloodstream |
| thyroid gland | secretes hormones that control metabolism |
| adrenal glands | control fight or flight response |
| neuron | a nerve cell; basic building block of the NS |
| myelin sheath | fatty tissue layer encasing the axons of some neurons; increases transmission speed and provides insulation |
| multiple sclerosis | deterioration of myelin sheath |
| glial cells | support, nourish, and protect neurons |
| sensory neurons | carry info from sensory systems to CNS |
| motor neurons | carry info from CNS to muscles and glands |
| interneurons | carry info btw other neurons; located only CNS |
| synapse | junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and dendrite of the receiving neuron |
| neurotransmitter | chemical messengers that travel across synapse and bind to receptor sites of receiving neuron; stays in synaptic gap |
| order for how neurons fire | resting potential, threshold, action potential, refractory period of repolarization |
| threshold | level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse |
| agonist | drug molecule that acts to create an excitatory signal |
| antagonist | drug molecule that inhibits a neurotransmitter's action or blocks reuptake |
| nervous system | body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems; neurons release neurotransmitters that move across synapse; nano-fast; text-message |
| nerves | bundled axons of many neurons that form neural cables connecting CNS w muscles, glands, and sense organs |
| CNS make up | brain and spinal cord |
| PNS make up | sensory and motor neurons |
| functions of sympathetic NS | dilates pupils, accelerates heartbeat, raises blood pressure/sugar, slows digestion |
| functions of parasympathetic NS | contracts pupils, decelerates heartbeat, lowers blood pressure, stimulates digestion, processes waste |
| brain | comprised of the cortex and subcortical structures carrying out various functions; nerves arranged into neural networks |
| spinal cord | oversees the sensory and motor pathways of reflexes btw PNS and brain |
| sense not controlled by thalamus | smell |
| cerebellum | "little brain"; processing sensory input, coordinating movement and balance |
| cerebral cortex | intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center |
| association areas | areas of brain involved in high order thinking; learning, speaking, thinking, remembering |
| left hemisphere | processes reading, writing, language, and speaking; dominant brain |
| right hemisphere | recognizes faces and more active in creative activities |
| Broca's area | expressive language center; speaking and writing |
| Wernicke's area | receptive language center; hearing and reading |
| split brain | idea that left brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa |
| corpus callosum | fibers that connect the two hemispheres and allow communication btw the two |
| circadian rhythm | our bodies’ 24-hour cycle that governs patterns of body processing |
| NREM | non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep |
| beta waves | low amplitude, fast waves experienced when awake |
| alpha waves | relatively slow waves experienced when in awake but relaxed state; also known as twilight |
| NREM-1 | may experience hypnagogic sensations or hallucinations; theta waves |
| NREM-2 | sleep spindles occur due to memory consolidation |
| NREM-3 | brain emits large, slow delta waves; deepest sleep |
| inattentional blindness | failing to see visible objects when our attention or focus is directed elsewhere |
| change blindness | failing to notice changes in the visual environment |
| perceptual set | bias or readiness to perceive certain aspects of available sensory data and to ignore others |
| sound to neural messages | vibrating air triggers nerve impulses that the brain decodes as sounds |
| 5 tastes | sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami |
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