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Chapter 5
Human Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Chapter 5 | Cognitive Development during the First Three Years |
| What are the six approaches to the study of cognitive development? | Behaviorist approach, psychometric approach, Piagetian approach, information processing approach, cognitive neuroscience approach, social contextual approach |
| approach to the study of cognitive development is concerned with the basic mechanics of learning | behaviorist approach |
| approach to the study of cognitive development that seeks to measure intelligence quantitatively | psychometric approach |
| approach to the study of cognitive development that describes qualitative changes in cognitive functioning | Piagetian approach |
| approach to the study of cognitive development that analyzes processes involved in perceiving and handling information | information processing approach |
| approach to the study of cognitive development that links brain processes with cognitive ones | cognitive neuroscience approach |
| approach to the study of cognitive development that focuses on environmental influences, particularly parents and other caregivers | social contextual approach |
| studies the basic mechanics of learning, how behavior changes in response to experience | behaviorist approach |
| measures quantitative differences in abilities and intelligence by using tests to indicate or predict skills | psychometric approach |
| looks at changes in the quality of cognitive functioning, how mine structures activities and adapts to environment | Piagetian approach. |
| focuses on perception, learning, memory, problem-solving, discover how children process information from time encountered until use it | information processing approach |
| examines hardware of central nervous system, identifying what brain structures involved in specific aspects of cognition | cognitive neuroscience approach. |
| examines effects of environment on learning, particularly of parents and caregivers | social contextual approach. |
| How do infants learn? | Infants learn through classical and operant conditioning |
| How long can infants remember? | Infants age 2 to 6 months could remember for up to 2 weeks, the older the child, the longer they remember. |
| What 2 learning processes do behaviorists study? | Classical conditioning and operant conditioning |
| What learning process do information processing researchers study? | Habituation |
| learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response | classical conditioning |
| learning based on reinforcement or punishment | operant conditioning |
| classically conditioned learning will _ if it is not reinforced by repeated association. | Become extinct or fade |
| contrast classical conditioning and operant conditioning. | Classical conditioning-passive, absorbed, reacting to stimuli; operant conditioning-learner reacts to environment. |
| inability to remember, early events | infantile amnesia. |
| What are several proposed explanations to infantile amnesia? | Early events are not retained, because brain is not yet developed enough to store them, early memories are stored but repressed because are emotionally troubling, children cannot store events until they can talk about them. |
| Will babies repeat conditioned actions? | If periodically reminded of the situation in which they learned it. |
| What does research using operant conditioning suggest? | Adult and infant memory does not differ fundamentally, only retention time is shorter. |
| Young infants memory of a behavior seems to be linked specifically to _. | The original cue |
| A _ context can improve recollection when the memory has weakened. | Familiar |
| What are the 6 important approaches to the study of cognitive development? What are their goals? | Behaviorist-mechanics of learning, psychometric-quantitative differences, Piagetian-quality of functioning, information processing-how child processes info, cognitive neuroscience-brain structures involved, social contextual-effects of environment. |
| What have operant conditioning studies found about infant memory? | Babies can remember for up to 2 weeks depending on their age |
| Give an example of classical and operant conditioning. | Classical-baby and camera, operant-baby babbling. |
| Behavior that is goal oriented and adaptive to circumstances and conditions of life | intelligent behavior |
| psychometric tests that seek to measure intelligence by comparing a test takers performance with standardized norms | IQ (intelligence quotient) test. |
| Can infants and toddlers intelligence be measured? | With developmental tests and the Bayley scales of infant and toddler development |
| How can intelligence be improved? | Brain stimulation |
| What are 2 aims of intelligent behavior? | Goal oriented, adaptive. |
| What is intelligent behavior directed at? | Adjusting to circumstances and conditions of life. |
| What is intelligence normally understood as? | Enables people to acquire, remember, use knowledge; understand concepts and relationships; solve everyday problems. |
| What are the goals of psychometric testing? | Measure quantitatively the factors that are thought to make up intelligence and form results to predict future performance. |
| What are you able to do with intelligence? | Comprehension, reasoning. |
| Why can babies not take standardized intelligence test? | Cannot tell us what they think or know, may not feel like doing the task. |
| psychometric tests that compare a babies performance on a series of tasks with standardized norms for particular age | developmental tests |
| standardized test of infants and toddlers mental and motor development | Bayley scales of infant and toddler development. |
| Even though it is impossible to test an infant's intelligence, what can be measured? | Cognitive development. |
| compare a baby’s performance on a series of tasks with norms of same age group | developmental tests. |
| widely used developmental tests designed to assess children from one month to 3 and half years. | Bayley scales of infant and toddler development. |
| What do scores on the daily scales of infant and toddler development tests indicate? | A child's strengths, weaknesses, competencies and 5 developmental categories. |
| What are the 5 developmental categories of Bayley scale of infant and toddler development? | Cognitive, language, motor, social emotional, adaptive. |
| separate scores calculated for each scale of the 5 developmental categories | developmental quotients. |
| What are developmental quotients most useful for? | Early detection of immersion all disturbances in sensory, neurological, environmental deficits, can help parents and professionals plan for a child's needs. |
| What is intelligence influenced by? | Inheritance and experience. |
| _ is the key to future cognitive development. | Brain stimulation |
| instrument to measure the influence of the home environment on children's cognitive growth. | Home observation for the measurement of the environment (HOME) |
| trained observers interview the primary caregiver and rate on a yes or no checklist the intellectual stimulation and support observed in a child home. | Home observation for the measurement of the environment (HOME) |
| _ scores are significantly correlated with measures of cognitive development. | HOME. |
| What is an important factor that the HOME assesses? | Parental responsiveness. |
| A longitudinal study found a _ correlation between parents responsiveness to 6 month olds and children's IQ. | Positive |
| What does the HOME assess? | Parental responsiveness, number of books in the home, presence of playthings that encourages development, parents involvement in child's play. |
| What are the 7 aspects of a early home environment then enable cognitive and psychosocial development and help prepare children for school? | Encourage exploration, mentor basic cognitive/social skills, celebrating developmental advances, guidance practicing/extending skills, protection from inappropriate disapproval /punishment, communicating richly/responsively, guiding/limiting behavior |
| What are some specific sick gesture instead help babies develop cognitive competence? | Sensory stimulation, learning, respond to baby, explore, talk, learn skills, applaud, read, punish sparingly. |
| systematic process of providing services to help families meet young children's developmental needs | early intervention. |
| Give an example of early intervention. | North Carolina experiment for babies from at risk homes, experiment group enrolled in partners for learning did better on IQ test than control group. |
| What are 5 qualities of the most effective early interventions? | Start early, continue to preschool; highly time intensive; direct educational experiences, not just parental training; include health and family counseling and social services; tailored to individual differences in needs. |
| With the 2 North Carolina projects, what was the long-term affect? | Initial gains tend to diminish unless there was enough ongoing environmental support for further progress |
| Why are developmental tests sometimes given to infants and toddlers? | Compare baby’s numbers with norm to ensure normal development. |
| Identify aspects of the early home environment that may influence cognitive development. | Exploration, mentor, celebrate development, guidance and practicing skills, protection from disapproval, communicating, guiding and limiting behavior. |
| Discuss the value of early intervention. | Help slow or at risk children develop fully, long-term better and education, no drugs/smoking. |
| How did Piaget explain early cognitive development? | Sensorimotor system |
| Piaget's 1st staging cognitive development, in which infants learn through senses and motor activity | sensorimotor stage. |
| The 1st of Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development is the _ stage. | Sensorimotor. |
| What happens during Piaget’s 1st sensorimotor stage? | Infants learn about themselves and their world through the developing sensory and motor activity, response changes from reflexes to goal oriented. |
| Piaget's term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations | schemes. |
| Piaget's term for processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance. | Circular reactions |
| What are the 6 substages of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development? | 1) use of reflexes, 2) primary circular reactions, 3) secondary circular reactions, 4) coordination of secondary schemes, 5) tertiary circular reactions, 6) mental combinations |
| Describe Piaget's 1st sensorimotor stage of cognitive development: use of reflexes. | Birth to 1 month, exercise reflects, gain some control, do not coordinate, do not grasp |
| Describe Piaget's 2nd sensorimotor stage of cognitive development: primary circular reactions. | Repeat pleasurable behavior, activity focuses on infants by a, make 1st acquired adaptation, suck different objects differently, coordinate sensory information and grasp objects |
| Describe Piaget's 3rd sensorimotor stage of cognitive development: secondary circular reactions. | Infant interested in environment, repeat actions that bring interesting results, actions are in tension all but not initially goal directed |
| Describe Piaget's 4th sensorimotor stage of cognitive development: coordination of secondary schemes. | Behavioral more intentional, used previously learned behavior to attain goal, anticipate events |
| Describe Piaget's 5th sensorimotor stage of cognitive development: tertiary circular reactions. | Curiosity, experimentation, very actions to see results, explore world, trying new activity, use trial and error |
| Describe Piaget's 6th sensorimotor stage of cognitive development: mental combinations. | Mentally represent events, symbolic thought without resorting to action, demonstrate insight, use symbols, gestures, words, pretend. |
| What stage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development does this symbolize: baby sucks on mother's breast? | Stage 1, use of reflexes |
| What stage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development does this symbolize: baby at just from sucking mother's nipple to sucking rubber nipple? | Stage 2, primary circular reactions. |
| What stage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development does this symbolize: baby pushes dry cereal off high chair and watches it fall to the floor? | Stage 3, secondary circular reactions. |
| What stage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development does this symbolize: baby pushes button on musical nursery rhyme book, pushes this button over and over instead of choosing other buttons for other songs? | Stage 4, coordination of secondary schemes. |
| What stage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development does this symbolize: baby learns how to fit his book into his crib by maneuvering it between the bars? | Stage 5, tertiary circular reactions. |
| What stage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development does this symbolize: baby places shaped box, carefully searches for the right hole for each shape before trying? | Stage 6, mental combinations. |
| In the _ substage, neonates begin to exercise some control over their inborn reflexes, engaging in behavior even when its normal stimulus is not present. | 1st substage. |
| In the _ substage, babies learn to repeat purposely a pleasant bodily sensation 1st achieved by chance, turn towards sounds and show ability to coordinate different kinds of sensory information to. | 2nd substage. |
| In the _ substage, babies intentionally repeat an action not merely for its own sake but to get results beyond the infants own body, coincides with a new interest in manipulating objects and learning about their properties. | 3rd substage. |
| In the _ substage, babies have learned to generalized from past experience to solve new problems, crawl to get something they want or push away a barrier. They modify and coordinate previous schemes. | 4th substage. |
| The _ substage marks the development of complex, goal directed behavior. | 4th substage. |
| In the _ substage, babies will vary an action to get a similar result, show originality and problem solving, use trial and error to attain a goal. | 5th substage |
| the beginning of the preoperational stage of early childhood | 6th substage. |
| In the _ substage, infants can mentally represent objects/actions/symbols, such as words and mental pictures, can pretend, representational ability affects sophistication of their pretending, think about actions before taking them, less trial and error. | 6th substage. |
| What do infants develop during the 6 substages of Piaget's development? | Abilities to think and remember, develop knowledge about the physical world. |
| What are the key developments of the sensorimotor stage? | Imitation, object permanence, symbolic development, categorization, causality, number |
| imitation with parts of one's body to one cannot see | invisible imitation. |
| imitation with parts of one's body that one can see | visible imitation. |
| Piaget's term for reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it | deferred imitation. |
| research method in which infants or toddlers are induced to imitate a specific series of actions they have seen but not necessarily done before. | Elicited imitation. |
| the ability to understand the goals, actions, feelings of others | social cognition. |
| When is imitation in important way of learning? | Toward the end of the 1st year as babies try out new skills. |
| Why might infants have an inborn predisposition to imitate human faces? | May serve evolutionary purpose of communication with a caregiver. |
| What suggests that a baby may be able to retain a mental representation of a simple event? | Babies as young as 6 weeks have imitated an adults facial movements after 24-hour delay. |
| When can elicited imitation develop? When does it become more reliable? | 9 months, 12 to 24 months |
| What 4 factors seem to determine a young child's long-term recall? | 1) The number of times a sequence of events has been experienced, 2) Whether the child actively participates or observes, 3) Whether the child is given verbal reminders of experience, 4) Whether the sequence of events occurs in a logical, casual order. |
| The ability to _ and to _ may be an early evolved mechanism for avoidance of predators. | Perceive the size and shape of objects, to discern their movements |
| the idea that objects have their own independent existence, characteristics, and locations in space. | Object concept. |
| The _ is the basis for children's awareness that they themselves exist apart from objects and other people. | Object concept. |
| Piaget's term for the understanding that a person or object still exists on out of sight. | Object permanence. |
| What is one aspect of the object concept? | Object permanence. |
| What is an example of object permanence? | A game of peekaboo. |
| Explain the 1st stage of object permanence. | About 4 to 8 months, baby will look for something they have dropped, cannot see it, act as if it no longer exists. |
| Explain the 2nd stage of object permanence. | About 8 to 12 months, baby will look for object in the 1st place they saw it hidden, even if they saw it moved. |
| Explain the 3rd stage of object permanence. | About 12 to 18 months, will search for an object in the last place they saw it hidden, will not search where they have not seen it hidden. |
| Explain the 4th stage of object permanence. | 18 to 24 months, toddlers will look for an object even if they have not seen it hidden. |
| Explain Thelen’s dynamic systems theory in relation to object permanence. | Where babies search for hidden object is not about what they know, but about what they do and why. |
| Is peekaboo played all around the world? | Yes. |
| What makes peekaboo exciting for a child? | Exaggerated gestures, voice tones, faces, voices. |
| What important purposes does peekaboo serve? | Helps babies learn to overcome anxiety when mother disappears, babies develop ideas about object permanence, learn rules that govern social routines, requires paying attention, prerequisite for learning. |
| intentional representations of reality | symbols. |
| Much of the knowledge people acquire about their world is gained, not through direct observation or experience, but through _. | Symbols. |
| What is an essential task of childhood? | Learning to interpret symbols. |
| attentive to symbols and their relationship to the things they represent | symbol-minded. |
| At what age are children able to point at a picture of an object and say its name? What is this demonstrating? | 19 months, demonstrate an understanding that a picture is a symbol of something else. |
| At what age do children understand that a picture is an object and a symbol? | age 2. |
| momentary misperceptions of the relative sizes of symbolic and real objects | scale errors. |
| What two systems work together during interactions with familiar objects? | Ability to recognize and categorize, plan what to do with it. |
| _ between immature brain systems is a possible reason for young children's frequent scale errors. | Faulty teamwork. |
| proposal that children under age 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation and mind at the same time | dual representation hypothesis. |
| According to _ hypothesis, it is difficult for toddlers to mentally represent both a symbol and the object it represents at the same time? | Dual representation hypothesis. |
| In regards to a little room and big room or a shrunken room, what makes it hard for the child to find things in the little room? | Requires a child to mentally represent both a symbol and its relationship to the thing it stands for at the same time. |
| At what age do babies begin to make it break through into conceptual thought? | 18 to 24 months. |
| Certain limitations that Piaget saw in infants’ early cognitive abilities may instead have reflected _. | Immature linguistic and motor skills. |
| Explain why Piaget may have underestimated some of infants’ cognitive abilities. | He didn't see immature linguistic and motor skills. |
| How can we measure infant' ability to process information? | habituation, dishabituation, visual recognition memory |
| type of learning in which familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response | habituation |
| _ analyze the separate parts of a complex task to figure out what abilities are necessary for each part of the task and at what age these abilities develop. | Information-processing researcher |
| What do information-processing researchers do? | figure out what age abilities develop, measure what infants pay attention to and for how long |
| According to the information-processing theory, familiarity breeds _. | loss of interest |
| How do information-processing researchers study habituation in newborns? | repeatedly presenting a stimulus (like a light or sound) and monitoring baby's responses, such as heart rate, sucking, eye movement, brain activity |
| increase in response after presentation of a new stimulus | dishabituation |
| How do researchers gauge the efficiency of infants' information processing? | measure how quickly baby habituates to new stimuli, how fast attention recovers, how much time is spent looking |
| What does the efficiency of habituation later relate to with cognitive development? | preference for complexity, rapid exploration of environment, sophisticated play, quick problem solving, ability to match pictures |
| Can different information-processing abilities be predictors of intelligence? | yes |
| tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another | visual preference |
| ability to distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar one when shown both at the same time | visual recognition memory |
| the tendency of a baby to prefer new sights to familiar sights | novelty preference |
| What does visual recognition memory depend on? | comparing incoming information with information the infant already has, for and refer to mental representations |
| When do studies suggest that at least a basic representational ability forms or exists? | at birth or shortly after, quickly becomes more efficient |
| Speed of processing increases rapidly during infant's _ year and increase during _ years. | first year, second and third |
| Piaget held that the senses are _ at birth and are _ through experience. | unconnected, gradually integrated |
| When is it believed that integration of the senses begins? How? | at birth, from experience |
| ability to use information gained by one sense to guide another | cross-modal transfer |
| Describe the attention span from birth through the first year. | birth to 2 months- gaze increases; 2 to 9 months- gaze decreases, learn to scan; 1st year to 2nd year- looking time platues or increases, attention more voluntary/task oriented |
| What might joint attention contribute to? | social interactions, language acquisition, understanding of other's mental states |
| When does joint attention develop? | 10 to 12 months |
| when babies follow an adult's gaze by looking or pointing in the same direction | joint attention |
| Why might joint attention be important? | higher language scores, understanding other's intentions |
| What are three things that are good at predicting childhood IQ? | habituation, attention-recovery abilities, visual recognition memory |
| How can visual reaction time and visual anticipation be measured? | by visual expectation paradigm |
| how quickly someone's gaze shifts to a picture that has just appeared | visual reaction time |
| gaze shifts to the place where the person expects the next picture to appear | visual anticipation |
| research design where a series of computer generated pictures briefly appears on each side of an infant's peripheral vision, measures how quickly the infant's gaze shifts | visual expectation paradigm |
| What 3 things does the visual expectation paradigm indicate? | attentiveness, processing speed, tendency to form expectations based on experience |
| What percent of 3 month olds watch TV? 2 year olds? | 40%, 90% |
| When young children watch educational TV, how can the positive impact be increased? | parental involvement and participation |
| What were the top 3 reasons parents allow their children to watch TV? | 1) belief that media is educational, 2) belief that viewing is enjoyable/relaxing for child, 3) use of media as an electronic babysitter |
| What were the top 2 reasons parents allow their children to have a TV in the their room? | 1) free the family television for other family members, 2) keep child occupied |
| What does the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Public Education recommend for children regarding TV? | children under 2 be discouraged from watching TV at all |
| What does the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Public Education recommend children do instead of watch TV? | talk, play, sing, read |
| What does time spent on media take away from? | exploratory play, interaction with family members |
| What ability that infants have are related to cognitive abilities intelligence tests measure? | ability to process sensory information |
| Predictions based on information processing measures do not take into account the influence of _. | environmental factors |
| Summarize the information-processing approach to the study of cognitive development. | what an infant pays attention to and for how long, measured by things like habituation, visual recognition memory, visual prefence |
| Explain how habituation measures the efficiency of infants' information-processing. | effects preference for complexity, rapid exploration, quick problem solving, ability to match pictures |
| Identify several early perceptual and processing abilities that serve as predictors of intelligence. | habituation, visual recognition memory, attention recovery abilities |
| do what others do | imitation |
| understanding that a person or object still exists when out of sight | object permanence |
| intentional representations of reality and developing to be able to understand that | symbolic development |
| _ is vital to thinking about objects or concepts and their relationships. | dividing the world into meaningful categories |
| Dividing the world into meaningful categories is the foundation of what 4 things? | language, reasoning, problem solving, memory |
| At what age can infants begin to group things into categories? | about 3 months |
| What do infants categorize on the basis of? | perceptual features |
| What are examples of perceptual features? | shape, color, pattern |
| categories based on real-world knowledge, particularly of function | conceptual |
| When does language become a factor of categorization? | in the second year |
| dividing the world into meaningful groups | categorization |
| principle that events have identifiable causes | causality |
| What is the understanding of causality important? | allows people to predict and control their world |
| When do infants begin to realize they act on the environment? | slowly during the first year, about 4 to 6 months |
| _ infants begin to realize that forces outside of themselves can make things happen. | Close to 1 year old |
| Investigators attribute the _ to a gradual improvement in information processing skills. | growth of causal understanding |
| What 3 things do 7 month olds appear to know about causality (from the experiment of bean bags being thrown by hands and toy trains? | 1) object incapable of self-motion must have a causal agent to set in motion, 2) hand is more likely causal agent than a toy train or block, 3) the existence and position of an unseen causal agent can be inferred from the motion of an inanimate object |
| research method in which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts with experience is taken as evidence that an infant recognizes the new stimulus as surprising | violation-of-expectations |
| When do infants begin to understand characteristics of the outside world? | about 3 months |
| How young did Renee Baillargeon find evidence of object permanence? How did she show this? | 3 1/2 months, short carrot event and tall carrot event, tall carrot did not appear behind notch of screen, infants looked longer at the "impossible event" |
| What 2 basic principles of object permanence may be present in the early months of life? | reasoning abilities- innate learning mechanisms, core knowledge |
| reasoning abilities that help infants make sense of the information they encounter, or acquire abilities early | innate learning mechanisms |
| intuitive knowledge of basic physical principles in the form of specialized brain modules that help infants organize perceptions and experience | core knowledge |
| Why reasons might the carrot event not prove object permanence in infants? | may only show that the infants sees a difference between the two, infant may not be surprised, may be brief memory of what infant saw, may be habituation of event, may be violation of expectations |
| What could account for Renee Baillargeon's finding on the carrot event? | not object permanence, possibly conceptual interpretation |
| What 3 areas of Piaget's account of development does information-processing research challenge? | object permanence, categorization, causality |
| Describe the violation-of-expectations research-how it is used and why. | if child has been habituated to experience, then changing event can bring new surprise, can be used to test object permanence |
| Describe some criticisms of the violation-of-expectations research. | overestimate infant's cognitive abilities, could be simpler explanation, may only partially represent mature abilities |
| What can brain research reveal about the development of cognitive skills? | which brain structures affect which cognitive functions, at what age certain skills occur |
| What does modern research reveal about the brain and cognitive? | brain growth spurts coincide with changes in cognitive behavior |
| What is this an example of: infant sees event happen normally, habituation, event is changed to conflict with normal expectations, infant's tendency to look at event longer shows surprise? | Violation of expectations |
| unconscious recall of a memory | implicit memory |
| What is a memory that generally consists of habits and skills | implicit memory |
| What is another name for implicit memory? | procedural memory |
| intentional and conscious memory | explicit memory |
| What is a memory that generally consists of facts, name and events? | explicit memory |
| short-term storage of information being actively processed | working memory |
| What does research reveal about the brain and cognitive behavior? | brain grows in spurts, coincide with changes in cognitive behavior |
| Why do researchers sometimes use brain scans? | determine which brain structures affects which cognitive functions, chart developmental changes |
| Implicit or Explicit: memory that occurs without effort | implicit |
| Implicit or Explicit: memory that occurs with conscious or intentional recollection | explicit |
| When does it appear that explicit memory develops? What shows this? | late infancy or toddlerhood, delayed imitation of complex behaviors |
| What makes longer lasting memories possible? | maturing of the hippocampal system |
| It is in _ that mental representations are prepared for, or recalled from, memory. | working memory |
| Karen Wynn conducted an experiment suggested, 5 month olds may be able to count small numbers because looked longer at dolls when there was a different number of them. What other suggestions are there for why infants looked longer at the wrong answer? | infants may be responding perceptually to doll removed; infants notice visual difference; may notice difference of contours, area or collective mass |
| What did Karen Wynn suggest regarding 5 month olds being able to count? | that numbers are an inborn concept that infants already know, adults just teach the names |
| Researchers in Israel replicated Karen Wynn's experiment and concluded what? | children have basic brain circuitry involved in numerical error detection, active by 1 1/2 years old |
| Social-contextual theorists pay particular attention to the impact of what on the brain? | environmental influences |
| Identify the brain structure involved in explicit memory. What task can it do? | Intentional and conscious memory, facts, names, events. |
| Identify the brain structure involved in implicit memory. What task can it do? | Unconscious recall, habits and skills |
| Identify the brain structure involved in working memory. What task can it do? | Short-term storage, convert new memories for storage. |
| How can brain research clarify a controversy over infants’ numerical abilities? | Through experimentation, it was concluded that basic brain circuitry involved in numerical error detection is working by age 1 ½. |
| How does social interaction with adults advance cognitive competence? | The more a parent interacts with and directly teaches the child, the better cognitive development the child has. |
| adult’s participation in a child's activity that helps to structure it and bring the child's understanding of it closer to the adult’s | guided participation. |
| Researchers influenced by _ study how the cultural context effects, early social interactions that may promote cognitive competence. | Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory |
| How can cultural context influence the way caregivers contribute to cognitive development? | adults direct involvement in children's play, way children taught, amount of time spent with child. |
| communication system based on words and grammar | language. |
| forerunner of linguistics speech; utterance of sounds that are not words | prelinguistic speech. |
| What does prelinguistic speech include? | Crying, cooing, babbling, accidental and deliberate imitation of sounds without understanding their meaning |
| what can words represent or describe? | Objects, actions, people, places, things, communicate, feelings, needs, ideas. |
| What is the typical sequence of milestones in prelinguistic speech? | Crying to cooing to babbling to accidental imitation to deliberate imitation. |
| When do babies typically save their 1st word? | Around 1-year-old. |
| When do toddlers began speaking in sentences? | About 18 to 24 months old. |
| What is a newborn’s only means of communication? | Crying. |
| What can vary in crying? What can the different variations mean? | Very-pitches, patterns, intensities; signal hunger, sleepiness, anger. |
| Between 6 weeks and 3 months old, babies start doing what? | cooing- squealing, gurgling |
| at what age do babies began playing with speech sounds? | 3 to 6 months. |
| What is the difference between cooing and babbling? | Cooing is gurgling, babbling is repeating consonant-vowel strings. |
| Between 6 and 10 months old, babies start doing what? | Babbling-repeating consonant-vowel strings. |
| When do infants begin to deliberately imitate sounds? | About 9 to 10 months old. |
| When might the process of sound discrimination begin? | Possibly in the womb. |
| True or false: infants can discriminate the sounds of any language at birth. | True. |
| True or false: infants do not lose the ability to discriminate sounds over time. | False. |
| basic sounds of a native a language | phonemes |
| By age _, hearing babies have learned to recognize approximately 40 phonemes. | 6 to 7 months. |
| By age _ , babies lose their sensitivity to sounds that are not part of the language they usually hear spoken. | 10 to 12 months. |
| How might that change to no longer be able to discriminate nonnative sounds occur? | Infants mentally “compute” the relative frequency of a particular phonic sequences and language, learn to ignore sequences they infrequently hear. |
| When can babies begin to understand gestures and use? | about 9 months. |
| When a baby uses a gesture to provide information what does it show? | Baby understands something about another person's state of mind and wants to help. |
| child understands something about another person's state of mind | social cognition. |
| These are examples of what: waving goodbye, nodding head yes, shaking head no. | Conventional social gestures. |
| When can a child begin using conventional social gestures? | 12 months. |
| These are examples of what: child holds empty cup to mouth to show they want something to drink or hold arms up to show they want to be picked up. | Representational gestures. |
| When can a child begin using representational gestures? | 13 months. |
| These are examples of what: blowing to mean hot or sniffing to mean flower. | Symbolic gestures. |
| When can a child begin using symbolic gestures? | About the same time as their 1st word. |
| What do babies using gestures shown example of? | Symbols can refer to objects, events, desires, conditions. |
| When do babies usually stop using gestures? | When they learn the word for the idea they are gesturing |
| What can be a sign that a child is about to begin using multiword sentences? | Gesture-word combinations |
| verbal expression designed to convey meaning | linguistics speech. |
| single word that conveys a complete thought. | holophrase. |
| When does the average baby say its 1st word? | Between 10 and 14 months. |
| Can babies understand words before they can use them? | Yes. |
| By 13 months, most children understand a word stands for_. | A specific thing or event. |
| At about 12 months old babies begin to learn words of _ objects. | Interesting. |
| At 24 months, children quickly recognized names of familiar objects in the absence of _. | Visual cues. |
| _ continues to grow as verbal comprehension gradually becomes faster and more accurate and efficient. | Passive vocabulary. |
| By 18 months, children can understand _ words and can say _ of them. | 150, 50. |
| Passive or expressive vocabulary: receptive or understood words | passive vocabulary. |
| Passive or expressive vocabulary: spoken words | expressive vocabulary. |
| Is a “naming explosion” universal? At what age does it occur? | No, between 16 and 24 months. |
| At 24 to 36 months, children can figure out the meaning of unfamiliar adjectives from _. | Context or nouns they modify. |
| early form of sentence used consisting of only a few essential words | telegraphic speech. |
| rules for forming sentences in a particular language | syntax. |
| What constitutes a child's 1st sentence? | When the toddler puts 2 words together to express one idea |
| When do children usually speak their 1st sentence? | Between 18 and 24 months. |
| What do a child's 1st sentence is typically deal with? | Every day events, things, people, activities. |
| sentence consisting of only a few essential words | telegraphic speech. |
| When do children show increasing competence at using syntax? | Between 20 and 30 months. |
| What are 5 characteristics of early speech? | Children simplify sentences, understand grammatical relationships they cannot yet express, underextend word meanings, overextend word meanings, overregularize roles |
| What does it mean for a child to underextend word meanings? | The word is restricted to a single object. |
| What does it mean for children to overextend word meanings? | Overgeneralize a word, such as all men with gray hair are grandpa. |
| What does it mean for children to over regular lies rules? | They apply rules rigidly, not knowing that some rules have exceptions. |
| What is the typical sequence of milestones in language development? | Crying, cooing, babbling, gestures, 1st word, 1st sentence, fewer gestures, comprehensions spurt, syntax. |
| What are 5 ways that early speech differs from adult speech? | Simplified, grammatical relationships, underextend word meanings, overextend word meanings, overregularize rules. |
| What did B. F. Skinner believe about language learning? | Based on experience, children learn language through operant conditioning, reinforced when object appears, it evolves to adult like speech. |
| What did Noam Chomsky disagree with Skinner about language development? | Observation, imitation, reinforcement contribute but do not fully explain. |
| What is Chomsky's view of language learning called? | Nativism. |
| theory that human beings have an inborn capacity for language acquisition | nativism. |
| in Chomsky's terminology, an inborn mechanism that enables children to infer linguistic rules from the language they hear | language acquisition device. |
| Unlike Skinner's learning theory, nativism emphasizes _. | The active role of the learner. |
| Chomsky suggested that an inborn _ programs children's brains to analyze the language they hear and to figure out its rules. | Language acquisition device. |
| What does the nativist positions explain? | Infants born with perceptual “tuning rods,” ability to differentiate sounds, children learn language and same age related sequence |
| What does the nativist positions not explain? | Why some children acquire language more rapidly/efficiently, white children differ and linguistic skill and fluency, why speech development depends on having someone to talk with. |
| deaf babies string together meaningless motions and repeat them over and over until parent reinforces meaning | hand babbling. |
| Children, whether hearing or deaf, probably have an inborn capacity to _, which may be activated or constrained by _. | Acquire language, experience. |
| How does learning theory seek to explain language acquisition? | Based on experience, learned through operant conditioning, observation, imitation, reinforcement |
| How does nativism seek to explain language acquisition? | Humans have an inborn capacity for language acquisition |
| What are some strengths of the learning theory on language acquisition? | Children are our reinforced for speech that is adult like |
| What are some strengths of the nativism theory on language acquisition? | Active role of learner, children acquire language in same age related sequence without formal training, our brain is different from animals |
| What are some weaknesses are the learning theory on language acquisition? | Does not explain correspondence between age at which linguistic advances in both hearing and non-hearing babies typically occur |
| What are some weaknesses of the nativism theory on language acquisition? | Does not explain how mechanism operates, does not tell why children acquire language more rapidly or efficiently than others, white children differ and linguistic skill or fluency |
| Is linguistic ability learned or inborn? | According to Skinner's learning theory-learned, according to Chomsky is nativism theory-inborn |
| How do babies develop language? | By listening to others, imitation |
| Explain the importance of social interaction. | it helps children to develop their vocabulary and language skills sooner |
| Give 3 ways caregivers can help babies learn to talk. | child-directed speech, imitate babbling, reading aloud |
| What is the argument for child-directed speech? | helps children to learn phonetic sounds and develop speech |
| What is the argument against child-directed speech? | some believe that children would learn faster and more efficiently with complex speech |
| Why is reading aloud to a child at an early age beneficial? | show better language skills and comprehension |
| Describe 3 effective ways of reading to a child aloud. | describer- describe what is going on, comprehended- encourage child to make predictions, performance-oriented- go over main themes in beginning, ask questions at end |
| What are six approaches to the study of cognitive development? | behaviorist, psychometric, Piagetian, information-processing, cognitive neuroscience, social-contextual |
| What can the six approaches of cognitive development shed light on? | how early cognition develops |
| What 2 ways do infants learn according to behaviorists? | classical conditioning, operant learning |
| According to Rovee-Collier's research, how do infants learn? | memory processes are like adults, has been questioned |
| In order for an infant to remember something, what needs to happen? | their memory needs to be jogged with a periodic reminder |
| How do infants learn? | imitate actions and sounds they hear and see |
| How long can infants remember? | infants a couple of days old can remember things up to 24 hours later, can remember longer as time goes on |
| _ can measure factors presumed to make up intelligence. | psychometric |
| Can infants' and toddlers' intelligence be measured? | some what |
| What test can indicate current functioning for newborn babies? Can it predict later intelligence? | Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, poor predictor of later intelligence |
| Can the home environment affect later intelligence? | yes |
| If the home environment does not provide necessary conditions for cognitive competence, what can be done? | early intervention |
| How can infants' and toddlers' intelligence be improved? | with early interventions |
| How did Piaget explain early cognitive development? | through the sensorimotor stage, progress from primary to secondary to tertiary circular reactions, to development of representational ability- imitation, pretending, problem solving |
| According to Piaget, what does object permanence become fully operational? | 18 to 24 months |
| What are some abilities that research has suggested come about earlier than Piaget predicted? | imitation and object permanence |
| How can we measure infants' abilities to process information? | through habituation and other signs of visual and perceptual abilities |
| What can be indicators of later intelligence? | efficiency of infants' information processing- such as speed of habituation |
| When do infants begin to understand characteristics of the physical world? | possibly as young as 3 to 6 months, through Piagetian abilities |
| What are some Piagetian abilities? | categorization, causality, object permanence, sense of number, ability to reason about characteristics of world |
| What are some information processing research techniques? | habituation, novelty preference, violation-of-expectations |
| What can brain research reveal about the development of cognitive skills? | explicit and implicit memory are in different brain structures |
| When does working memory emerge? | between 6 and 12 months old |
| _ may explain the emergence of Piagetian skills and memory abilities. | neurological developments |
| How does social interaction with adults advance cognitive competence? | through shared activities that help children learn skill, knowledge and values important to their culture |
| True or false: the acquisition of language is an important aspect of cognitive development? | True |
| What does prelinguistic speech include? | crying, cooing, babbling, imitating language sounds |
| By age 6 months, babies have learn what? | basic sounds of their language and begun to link sound with meaning |
| Perception of categories of sounds in the native language may commit the neural circuitry to _. | further learning in that language only |
| What do babies do before they say their first word? | use gestures |
| When does a baby usually say their first word? What does this initiate? | 10 to 14 months, linguistic speech |
| When does the toddler naming explosion occur? | 16 to 24 months |
| When do children start speaking in brief sentences? | 18 to 24 months |
| When are syntax and communicative abilities fairly well developed? | by age 3 |
| What is early speech characterized by? | overextending word meanings, underextending word meanings, oversimpliciation, overregularizing rules |
| What are 2 theoretical views about how children acquire language? | learning theory and nativism |
| Developmental scientists believe that _ capacity to learn language may be actived or constrained by _. | inborn, experience |
| What are 2 influences on language development? | neural maturation, social interaction |
| What can affect a child's language development? | family characteristics, socioeconomic status, adult language use, maternal responsiveness |
| What benefits does child directed speech have? | cognitive, emotional, social |
| What kind of speech does a baby seem to prefer? Child-directed speech or complex adult speech? | child directed speech |
| _ can pave the way to literacy. | reading aloud |
| What do some researchers dispute the value of child directed speech? | because they believe complex adult speech is more beneficial |
| How do babies develop language? | prelinguistic speech, slowly working their way from crying to stringing letters together to saying a word then a sentence then syntax |
| What influences contribute to linguistic progress? | neurological maturation and environment- parental sensitivity and responsiveness |
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