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CogPsych 7
Chapter 7: Long-term Memory (Structure)
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is Long-Term Memory? | The system that is responsible for storing information for long periods of time. |
| What is the capacity of LTM? | From 30 seconds ago to as far back as we can remember. |
| What is the purposse of LTM? | It is a wealth of background knowledge that we are constantly consulting as we use working memory to make contact with what is happening at a particular moment. |
| What is a serial position curve? | It plots the percentage of subjects recalling each word versus the word's position in the list. |
| What is the primacy effect? | Subjects are more likely to recall words presented at the beginning of a list. |
| Why does the primacy effect occur? | Subjects have more time to rehearse the words at the beginning of the sequence and transfer them to LTM. Subjects begin rehearsing the first few words after presentation; rehearsal is less possible later as attention becomes spread over many words. |
| How did Rundus (1971), in his study on the primacy effect, prevent subjects from rehearsing words? | He asked them to repeat the words out loud during the 5-second intervals between words. |
| What is the recency effect? | Subjects are more likely to remember words presented at the end of a sequence. |
| Why does the recency effect occur? | The most recently presented words are still in STM and therefore are easy for subjects to remember. |
| How did Glanzer & Cunits (1966), in their study on the recency effect, prevent rehearsal? | They had subjects recall the words after they had counted backwords for 30 seconds right after hearing the last words of the list. |
| What is coding? | The form in which stimuli are represented in memory. |
| What is visual coding? | Coding in the mind in the form of a visual image. |
| What is auditory coding? | Coding in the mind in the form of a sound. |
| What is semantic coding? | Coding in the mind in terms of meaning. |
| Using examples, illustrate the difference between visual coding in the LTM and STM respectively. | You use visual coding in STM when you remember a recently-presented pattern by representing it visually in your mind. You use visual coding in LTM when you vizualize a place or person from the past. |
| Using examples, illustrate the difference between auditory coding in the LTM and STM respectively. | You use auditory coding in short-term memory through the phonological similarity effect. You use auditory coding in LTM when you "play" a song in your head. |
| Using examples, illustrate the difference between semantic coding in the LTM and STM respectively. | You use semantic coding in STM when you recall recently-presented words after hearing them. |
| What is proactive interference? | The decrease in memory that occurs when previously learned information interferes with learning new information. |
| How did Wickens et al. (1976) create proactive interference in their study on semantic coding in STM? | They presented words from the same category on a series of trials. |
| Describe the Wickens et al. (1976) experiment. What were their findings? | On each trial, subjects were presented with words about fruits or professions. For the fruits group Performance was high on trial 1 but drops on 2 and 3 as words were unrelated. On 4, fruits were presented, performance increased as interference is absent. |
| What is recognition memory? | The identification of a stimulus that was encountered earlier. |
| How did Sachs' (1967) study demonstrate semantic coding in LTM? | Some subjects identified different sentences as matching one in the passage, even though they had different wordings. They remembered the sentence's meaning, but not its exact wording. |
| What coding is the most likely form of coding for LTM? | Semantic coding. |
| What did Henry Molaison and Clive Wearing demonstrate, wrt memory? | H.M. led to an understanding of the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories. Also, the fact that his short-term memory remained intact suggested that STM and LTM are served by different brain regions. |
| What did patient K.F. demonstrate wrt memory? | A functioning LTM but a greatly impaired STM. He had a digit span of only 2 as compared to between 5 or 9. In addition, he had a reduced recency effect. |
| What do H.M., Clive Wearing and K.F. establish wrt memory? | A double dissociation. H.M. and Clive have working STM but impaired LTMs; K.F. has a impaired STM but a working LTM. Thus, this evidence supports the idea that STM and LTM are caused by different mechanisms which can act independently. |
| What do the imaging experiments conducted by Ranganath & D'Esposito (2001) show wrt memory? | The hippocampus is also involved in maintaining novel information in memory during short delays, in addition to long-term memory. |
| What are the two forms of LTM? | Episodic and semantic. |
| According to Tulving (1985), what is the defining property of episodic memory? | The experience of traveling back in time to reconnect with events that happens in the past. Tulving describes this experience of mental time travel as self-knowing or remembering. |
| What is the experience of episodic memory? | It invovles accessing knowledge about the world that does not have to be tied to remembering a personal experience. This knowledge can be things like facts, vocab, numbers and concepts. |
| What is the double dissociation of episodic and semantic memory? | Patient K.C. and the Italian woman K.C. had impaired episodic memory, but intact semantic memory. Etc. |
| Distinguish between explicit memory and implicit memory. | Explicit memories are memories we are aware of. Implicit memories are memories we aren’t aware of: Implicit memory occurs when learning from experience is not accompanied by conscious remembering. |
| What is procedural memory? Why is procedural memory considered a form of implicit memory? | Procedural memory (skill memory) is memory for doing things that usually involve learned skills. Procedural memories are gained without conscious awareness. |
| What is priming? Repetition priming? | Priming occurs when the presentation of one stimulus (the priming stimulus) changes the way a person responds to another stimulus (the test stimulus). Repetition priming occurs when the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the priming stimulus. |
| What precautions are taken to be sure that people with normal memory do not use episodic memory in an experiment that is designed to test implicit memory? | 1. Present the priming stimulus in a task that does not appear to be a memory task 2. Use testing procedures that do not refer to memory 3. Measure how accurately or quickly the subject responds to a stimulus. |
| Describe the Perfect and Askew advertising experiment. | J. Perfect and C. Askew (1994), who had subjects scan articles in a magazine. subjects were not told to pay attention to the advertisements. When they were later asked to rate ads. they gave higher ratings to the ones they had been exposed to. |
| What is classical conditioning? Why is it a form of implicit memory? | Pairing of a neutral stimulus that initially does not result in a response and a conditioning stimulus that does result in a response. This is implicit memory because it can occur even if the person has forgotten about the original pairing. |
| What is autobiographical memory? | Memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components. |
| What are personal semantic memories? | Facts associated with personal experiences e.g. fav. game |
| What is the remember/know procedure? | Subjects are presented with a stimulus they have encountered before and are asked to respond. Remember: familiar stimulus, and the circumstances when they first met stimulus. Know: familair but no experience. Otherwise: Don't know if don't remember at all |
| What is semanticization of remote memories? | Loss of episodic detail for memories of long-ago events. |
| How did Petrican et al. (2010) show evidence for semanticization of remote memories? | Remember responses decreased much more than know responses, meaning that events had lost much of their episodic character. |
| What is the constructive episodic simulation hypothesis, as proposed by Schacter and Addis (2007, 2009)? | Episodic memories are extracted and recombined to construct simulations of future events. The role of the episodic memory system is not to remember the past, but to simulate possible future scenarios to anticipate needs and guide future behaviour. |
| Describe the mirror drawing experiment and other examples from the chapter. | Copying a picture that is seen in a mirror: while looking at the reflection, trace the outline of the star on the paper |
| Describe the Graf experiment, including the results and how they support the idea that priming is a form of implicit memory. | As expected, amnesiac patients recalled fewer words than the two control groups. However, in the word completion test, the amnesiac patients performed just as well as the controls. |
| What is the propaganda effect, and why could it be considered a form of priming? | Subjects are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, simply because they have been exposed to them before. It can operate even when people are not aware that they have heard or seen a statement before. |
| What is the Levels-of-processing theory, proposed by Craik & Lockheart (1972)? | Depth of processing falls on a shallow to deep continuum. Shallow processing (structural & phonemic) leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. Conversely, deep processing (semantic) results in a more durable memory trace. |
| What are the advantages and disadvantages of levels-of-processing theory? | • Difficulty in operationally defining “deeper processing”, resulting in circular reasoning • However, LOP theory demonstrated that encoding influences retrieval - Words in complex sentence results in better memory |
| What are the effects formed by levels-of-processing theory? | - Forming connection with other information (elaboration) - Visual imagery effect (creating images to represent words) - Self-reference effect (making info personally relevant) - Generation effect (remember items better if we make them up) |
| What does prior knowledge in LTM do in learning? | • Prior knowledge guide our attention towards certain information over others and hence biases them to enter LTM • Prior knowledge provides a framework for organizing information entering LTM |
| Why does a knowledge framework formed by prior knowledge in LTM aid learning and retrieval? | • Information presented in knowledge framework aid encoding because similar items provides retrieval cues • Bower et al. (1969) demonstrated participants remembered more items from organized framework than random presentation |
| Between emotional and unemotional events, which are better encoded? How so? | • Emotional events are encoded better than non-emotional events • Intensity of emotion correlates with the level of vividness of a memory • No difference between positive and negative events - both equally well encoded |
| Why are emotional events better encoded? | - Emotional arousal causes narrowing of attention - Peripheral details are often remembered less than details in the focus of attention - Hormones released during an emotional event helps the consolidation of memory in the brain (amygdala) |
| What is retrieval? | Getting information out of memory |
| What are retrieval cues? | • Retrieval cues: Stimuli that help us remember information stored in memory • Free recall vs. Cued recall • Cued recall result in better retrieval |
| How did Tulving & Pearlstone show that cued recall was better than free recall? | Cued recall group had 75% of words recalled vs 40% |
| How did Mantyla show the generation effect? | The test which used cues generated by the subject had 90% recalled vs 55% for cues created by someone else and 17% for no cues |
| What is the encoding specificity principle? | Effectiveness of retrieval cue depends on match between conditions at retrieval • Appropriate retrieval cues enhance recall |
| How did Godden and Baddely, Grant show the ecoding specificity principle? | Subjects who studied underwater and had the test underwater ad subjects who studied on land and had the test on land had better recall than those who did so in incongruent conditions. Grant did the same but with quiet and noisy. |
| Marian & Neisser (2000) demonstrated encoding specificity in bilinguals. How? | When an event occurs and/or is told to a bilingual in language A, it will be better recalled if they tried to respond in language A rather than language B |
| What is state-dependent learning? | Memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed. |
| How did Eich and Metcalfe show state-dependent learning? | Subjects who studied while sad and had the test while sad etc had better recall. |
| What is transfer-appropriate processing? | Memory performance enhanced if task type at encoding matches task type at retrieval |
| How did Morris et al. demonstrate transfer-appropriate processing? | • Participants learnt words either in the “Rhyming” or “Association” context • Participants in the Association context had better recall. |
| What is consolidation? | Process that transforms new memories form fragile state (more likely to be disrupted) to a more permanent state (more resistant to disruption) |
| What is synaptic consolidation? | Takes place over minutes or hours; involves structural changes at synapse |
| What is systems consolidation? | Takes place over months or years, involve gradual reorganisation of neural circuits within brain |
| What how does sleep affect memory consolidation? | • Consolidation facilitated by sleep • Facilitation by sleep modulated by expectation Wilhelm (2011) -> pair of pictures, Gais (2007) -> word pairs |
| What is reconsolidation? | Process by which retrieved memory could be updated |
| How are fake memories formed during reconsolidation? | • Retrieved memory is fragile (to allow for changes) • Fragile memory then reconsolidated for changes to be updated in LTM • Reconsolidation process linked to formation of false memory |
| How does the Nader et al. (2000a) demonstrate chemicals affecting reconsolidation? | (a) Anisomycin is injected on Day 1, before consolidation, so memory for the tone–shock pairing is not (b) Anisomycin is injected on Day 2, after consolidation, memory remains. (c) Anisomycin is injected after reactivation on Day 2, memory eliminated. |
| How did Hupbach et al. (2007) demonstrate that reconsolidation occurs in human beings? | - Recall (List 1) - Intrusions (List 2) The fact that the reminder group had more intrusions supports the idea that reactivation and reconsolidation can affect human memory. |
| What is the testing effect? | Long-term memory is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information through testing with proper feedback. |
| What is the spacing effect? | Learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of time in a single session. That is, it is better to use spaced presentation rather than massed presentation. |
| What is the interleaving effect? | One mixes, or interleaves, practice on several related skills together. |
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