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Career Development
Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Career | Roles individuals play over their lifetime |
| Work | Purposeful activity to earn money or other reward |
| Jobs | Positions requiring certain skills within an organization |
| Occupations | similar jobs found in many organizations |
| Role of Theory (4) | -Theories should be EXPLICIT abt rules & theorems (broader theory = more difficult to be specific abt terms, etc) -Should be PRECISE abt limitations of their predictions (to understand subject of the theory) -When theory is devlpd it should be TESTED |
| -Theory should be CONSISTENT AND CLEAR | |
| Person-Environment Fit (Dawis) | Helping persons to assess their traits and characteristics & understand what occupations need, and deciding whether the two match. |
| To use career development theories, counselors should consider: | -their client populations -their theory of personality and counseling -the theory's ease of use in counseling sessions |
| Career Counseling Skills | - Helping skills -Knowledge of tests -Knowledge of occupational information -Knowledge of career development theory |
| Helping Skills | -Attending skills: nonverbal presence; eye contact, attending position. -Questions: open & close-ended -Restating: directs attention to situation/person/general idea, encourages client to add to statement. Can reflect words, voice, tone, gestures, etc |
| -Content reflections: focus on info that client provides; tend to be used when counselor perceives little affect. -Feeling reflections: contain (or imply) emotional word/phrase | |
| -Continuation Responses: helpful to request more info; nonverbal such as nodding or verbal i.e. "go on", "and then?" -Giving info, not opinion: Give clear, accurate, up-to-date info; Giving opinons risks encourageing/discouraging client inappropriately | |
| -Reinforcement: client's behavior is reinforced rather than client -Family b/g exploration: genogram, discuss how client's career plans relate to those of family -Assessment Interpretation: provides info abt client to client | |
| Knowledge of Tests & Instruments | -Norms: scores typical of a population; presented in percentiles -Reliability: dependable & consistent; scores taken on 2 forms of a test should be similar -Validity: test measures what it is supposed to |
| Types of Validity (4) | -Content: Actual content of items, should reflect area instrumetn is trying to measure (i.e. Algebra) -Concurrent:Compare measure to specific criterion (i.e. scores on test for clerical ability compared to secretaries w/established abilities) |
| -Predictive: Predicts a criterion in future; test of clerical aptitude should predict how well indiv. will perform in 1 yr -Construct: More complex; scales should relate to terms or variable that are similar (Dep. inven should be related to others) | |
| Role of Assessments in Career Development Theory (2) & 3 features of tests & inventories | 1. Can be used to develop & verify theory 2. Provide counselor w/info used to understand client from the perspective of CDT -Selection, administration, & interpretation |
| What to know about occupational information (5) | -Where clients get first jobs or where clients go to work after completing counseling -principal employment opportunities in local area. Geographic job search area for college stus is much larger than hs stus. -Learn abt occs. clients are considering |
| -Learn abt at least 1 occ that is central to each of three of the most important & largest local employers. Involves visiting & developing contacts w/these employers. -Know how to obtain info & to evaluate it for accuracy & usefulness | |
| Knowledge of Occupational Information: Most important types of information | -Descriptions of occupation -working conditions -qualifications required by job duties -beginning & average salaries -employment outlook -education (courses, majors, or degrees) required -Where one can get info abt occ. |
| Goals of Career Counseling (2 most common) | 1. SELECTION of an occupation 2. Adjustment to an occupation -Explicit: counselor & client agree purpose of counseling is to select from appropriate career alternatives. -Implicit: counselor assumes client wants to select appropriate career alts. |
| Instruments: My Vocational Situation (MVS) | -Developed by Holland, Gottfredson, & Power. -Typical uses: 1. Screening pops or clients to assess need for voc. assistance; 2. evaluation of outcomes of voc. interventions; 3. research |
| Instruments: Ability Profiler | -Developed by Occupational Network Resource Center (O*NET). -O*NET provides comprehensive occupational descriptions & data |
| Two Types of Theories | -Longitudinal: Age (Life Span Theories; Relational Theories) -Cross Sectional: Trait & Factor; Decision-Making; Social Learning; Social Cognitive |
| Frank Parsons (1854-1908) | -Father of Vocational Guidance -Cornell-Engineer -Wrote abt social reform mvmts, women's suffrage, taxation, edu for all -Taught in pub. school, worked as RR eng, passed bar in Mass 1881 -Best known for helping individuals make occ & career choices |
| History 1890-1919: Job Placement | -1901 Mrs Quincy Agassiz Shaw est Civic Service House in Boston. Provided edu opps for immigrants & youth, helped youth find work. -Vocational Guidance: developed in latter part of 1800. Social reform mvmt (people living in slums, lots of child labor) |
| Reform lead to: required edu mvmt (keeping kids in school); vocational guidance mvmt (initial focus on job placement); Child labor laws enacted (saving the work for adults) | |
| -Parsons organized Bureau of Vocational Guidance to help youth make transition from school to work. -Used bureau to train young men to be counselors& managers for YMCA's schools, collages, & businesses -Bostons 1st counselor certification program | |
| -1908 Parsons lectured on systematic guidance procedures, died same year. -Choosing a Vocation (published 1909) was his major work. First writing of trait & factor theory | |
| -Developed framework for helping individuals decide on a career: 1.Understanding of self 2.Understanding of world of work 3.Combination of the two | |
| -WWI 1914: Research completed to assess abilities of personnel so American's would be better able to serve the war effort -1913 National Vocational Guidance Association formed | |
| History 1920-1939: Educational Guidance | -Social & educational processes focused on educational counseling & vocational guidance in schools -1939 First edition of Dictionary of Occupational Titles -Great Depression |
| History 1940-1959: Training of Counselors | -WWII (1939-45) -Focus societal resources on colleges & universities -Training of professional counselors: 2 important social issues led to rise in professional counseling, Vets w/personal & career problems, & influx of new students w/GI bill |
| History 1960-1979: Career Development | -1960's: Civil Rights Movement & economic highs -Young individuals wanted meaningful work, to "change the world" -Due to legislation & social focus, career counseling in organizational settings came into the forefront (more as a profession/ trained for) |
| Ethical Principles | -Autonomy: Respect that clients make their own decisions -Nonmalificence: Do no harm -Beneficence: help clients by promoting health and well-being -Justice: Fairness in dealing w/clients & other professionals -Fidelity: honoring commitments |
| Trait and Factor Theory | -Trait: Characteristic of an individual that can be measured through testing. -Factor Characteristic that is required for successful job performance |
| -Statistical aproach used to differentiate important characteristics of a group of people -Assessment of characteristics of the person and the job. | |
| Parson's Requirements for Occupational Selection (TFT) | 1. Understanding of self (attitudes, abilities, interests, ambitions, limitations) 2.Knowledge of requirements for success (advantages, disadvantages, compensation) 3. Integrating information about self and the world of work |
| Step 1: Gaining Self-Understanding | -Aptitude: reveals person's probable future level of ability to perform a task. -Achievement: designed to reveal how much indiv has learned. 3 Types: academic, work accomplishments, quantitative/achievement for certification or entry into an occupation |
| -Interests: More accurately predicts occupational entry than apptitude for individuals with many abilities -Values: For Career counseling, general values & work-related values are important (family, autonomy, payment, etc) | |
| -Peronality: more difficult to learn to use personality invens. May be culturally biased, but helps counselor get a broader understanding of the client. -Ability: measures max. performance & reveals level of person's present ability to perform task | |
| Step 2: Obtain Knowledge about the World of Work: Types of occupational information | -Books, pamphlets, etc -Includes description of occupation, qualifications required for entry, necessary education, working conditions, salary, employment outlook, advancement, similar careers, info for women & minorities, and brief examples |
| Step 2: Classification Systems | -Created to organize occupational info. -Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) replaced by Occupational Information Network (O*NET) -Standard Occupational Classification Manual (SOC) -Enhanced Guide for Occupal. Exploration (GOE) |
| Step 3: Integrating Information: Major goal of Trait & Factor Theory | -Integrate info from several inventories (possibly contradictory) w/info gathered from interview |
| Step 3: Focus on Self-Assessment | -Most occup. info can be obtained outside session, session should focus on self-assessment. Often helpful to suggest client discussoptions w/others or gain experience in prospective occupations -Career decisions can occur several times throughout life |
| Counselor Issues with TFT (Makes this theory more difficult for counselors to implement). | -Looks deceptively simple, easy for beginning couselors to develop a style where they ask questions and client answer. Tests/inventories seem authoritative to client and can prevent easy interaction and rapport building. |
| -Also deceptively simple because 3 basic tenets of therapy provide an overview but not many details. Doesn't provide guide for which tests/inventories to include | |
| -another concern is emphasis on assessment, take time to discuss personal info and experience and not strictly rely on assessment -Help client assume responsibility for career choice & don't encourage them to make decision based only on assessment | |
| -Theory is static rather than developmental. Does not focus on how achievements, aptitudes, interests, values, & personalities grow and change. Focuses on identifying traits & factors. | |
| -Recognize differences betwn own aptitudes, achievements, interests, values, & personality and those of the client. | |
| Applying Theory to Women | -Much research focused on differences between men & women in real & perceived math & verbal abilities -Men rate abilities of perrs lower than own and women rate peers' abilities higher than own -Women more interested in artistic, clerical, & social |
| Applying Theory to Diverse Populations | -Strong interest inventory predicts interests of culturally divers populations & caucasian -Asian-Amer interests in social occs, scientific, & technical occs. -African-Amer overreprestented in social service occs. |
| -Mexican-Amer hold more traditional view of gender roles -Native-Amer more concerned about entire community | |
| Bullock Article | -Sample of African American & Caucasian -Examined career decision-making self-eficacy: an individuals belief about their capacity to perform tasks related to the career decision-making prcess |
| -Negative career thoughts inhibit career problem solving & decision making | |
| Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy: Instruments | -International Personality Item Pool; 50 items used to assess BIG 5 -cultural Mistrust Inventory -Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form |
| Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy: Implications | -be aware of personality factors, especially openness, conscientiousness, & extroversion. Encourage clietns to be more open to a variety of career options; expose to options not previously considered -Use cog. theory to address negative career thinking |
| Strong Interest Inventory (SII) | -Developted in 1927 by E.K. Strong, first measure to look at interests. -Current (2005) version is self-assess. used by CD profess. to examin interests/ assist w/career & edu decision making -291 items, 35-40 mins -use w/value & personality invens. |
| US Labor Market | -Serves to fulfill needs of citizens of state, nation, world. -Job availability related to demands of individuals for food, shelter, clothing, etc. -Education closely related to income & participation in labor force |
| Greatest increases expected in: | Healthcare support, heath care practitioners, technical occupations, protective occupations, computer/mathematical occupations, community/social services occupations Fastest growing= health care & computing |
| Smallest amount of expected growth: | -Farming -Fishing -Forestry -Production (manufacturing) |
| Growth | -Need for new workers to meed demands of an occupation beyond the needs met by replacing current workers |
| Non-Psychological Perspectives on CD: Sociological | Study social organizations rather than individuals. Studies patterns of customs & interactions of other institutions |
| Non-Psychological Perspectives on CD: Economic | -Studies the production, distribution, & consumption of goods & services. Examines unemployment & pay. |
| Sociological & Economic Approaches | -Sociologists study development, organization, & operation of human society. -Examined family, cultural, & social factors predicting career choice. |
| -Economists study production, distribution, & consumption of goods & services -Investigated factors such as unemployment, pay distribution by industry, job title, gender, & race | |
| -Because economists and sociologists focus on societal organizations & counselors focus on individuals, application of sociological & economic theories is indirect. | |
| -Status Attainment Model: predicts prestige level of person's job from individuals social (family) b/g. -Human Capital Theory: individuals invest in own edu & training for higher pay & more prestige | |
| Inequalities in the Labor Market | -Criticism of Human Capital Theory led to study of structure of labor markets; investigators found several segments -Lowest segment, labor market is lower paying jobs w/little advancement; opposite found in highest segment. |
| -Related to this is the study of organizational & societal treatment of women & minorities; critiques & elaborates on these theories -Research shows women & minorities hold different job types than white males, are paid less & have less chance of adv. | |
| Factors Contributing to an Inequitable Labor Market | -Increased demand for low-paying personal service occupations -Great separation btwn executive & labor salaries -Limited access to occupational info -Rapid technological changes -Employers lack loyalty -Racial & Gender discrimination |
| -Psychiatric hospitalizations/ mental illness stigmatized -Media very accessible, doesn't always accurately represent jobs -Supply & demand is fickle -Illegal economy; drugs, theft (money lost from stolen items is made up by increasing prices) | |
| Youth Employment | -Ages 15-24 -HS dropout, 10.4% of US studs. (6% white, 2.7% Asian, 10.4% Af Am, 22.4% Hisp) -Young women make 70%-75% of male incomes -Working 1st college sem. negatively affects grades -HS working > 20hrs assoc. w/prob behav., minor delinq, EOTH use |
| Youth Employment: Discrimination | -Employers may not trust low income minority youth to work effectively -Perceived as more likely to quit, less responsible/productive |
| Youth Employment: Type of Work Matters | -Most jobs for youth are low level service industry (food service, retail) -Farm work assoc. w/lower test scores -Some jobs lead to personal satisfaction & better attitudes towards work; learned wrk attitudes can impact later attitudes towards FT wrk |
| Effects of Work Environment on Individuals | -Complex work helps indiv. increase ability to effectively handle complex intellectual tasks -Can lose ability to handle complex tasks if not challenged -Substantive complexity: degree to which work requires thought & independent judgment |
| Task complexity related to intellectual flexibility, self-directedness, & sense of well-being -In US, complex housework increased intellectual flexibility for men & women but decreased self-confidence for men & increased it for women | |
| Status Attainment Theory | -Concerns issues regarding relative role of achievement & social status in influencing occupational selection -Intergenerational change (or vertical mobility): focused on predicting occupational roles from father's occupation |
| Each variable affects the next | -Family status (father's occ & edu level) & Cog. variables (measure of mental ability, school grades) -Social-Psychological process (edu & occ aspirations of youth, encouragement from parents & teachers to attend college, peers' plans to attend college) |
| -Educational attainment (number of years of schooling) -Occupational attainment (prestige level of career) | |
| Status Attainment Theory, cont. | -Found father's occ not as predictive of child's occ status as thought -Mother's occ important but father's more influential -Separation/divorce & DV increases prob. of lower status job -Af Ams & women don't attain same level of occ status as WM |
| -Low SES= poor health, less parental, peer, & teacher support -When working w/ low SES, have plan to counter discouragement & empower individuals to look at all their options. -Have established contacts in community to refer for resources/support | |
| Criticism of SAT | -Unable to explain later changes after individual has begun employment -Not usng recent data -Not looking at changes in occupational status within a career |
| Human Capital Theory | -Individuals invest in edu to increase lifetime earnings -Edu/training viewed as investment to produce desired income -Sometimes on-the-job training/edu provided by employers & will increase value of individual human capital |
| HCT: Relationship to Trait & Factor Theory | -Seen as an endorsement of TFT -Emphasizes role of assessment of interests & abilities in occupation selection -Different in emphasizes career choice as long-term process w/focus on income |
| Criticism of HCT | -Does not address other goals (helping others, etc) -Goal is monetary reward -Assumes labor market is equally open to everyone -Doesn't consider job discrimination against women & minorites |
| Invest in the individual's abilities, interests, & values... | -Education + training + work + other = $ -Modified Human Capital Theory: Education + training + work + other = satisfaction |
| Structure of Labor Market: Duel-economy theory | -Primary labor market: monopolistic market share, advanced technology or national commerce; larger firms, high skills, much training, high wages, job stability, & advancement |
| -Secondary labor market: retail, fast food, etc; usually min. wage, little training, high turnover, no advancement. -Not likely to move from primary to secondary or vice versa | |
| Primary sector divided into 2 tiers | -Lower: more status, better working conditions, better pay, more formal training, informal relationship with supervisor, wages set through bargaining (plumber, electrician) |
| -Upper: managerial & professional, better employment than lower tier, more autonomy, relationship with supervisor less important, more education prior to employment | |
| Describing Economies of Developing Countries: Hodson & Sullivan (2008)- Tertiarization | -Countries having service economy w/o being based on manufacturing products -1st sector: agriculture & mining -2nd sector: manufacturing -3rd sector (tertiary): service, unskilled jobs (servant, waitress, sales clerk, selling flowers/newspaper |
| -In US, agriculture & mining are small compared w/manufacturing, but revers is true in developing countries -Provides a way of viewing labor markets of other countries that are quite different from those in US & European Union | |
| Viewing Future Changes in the Labor Market: Hodson & Sullivan (2008)- 2 sectors | -Innovative: technology, highly educated, well paid; characterized by training for new skills & providing job security -Marginal: restaurant work & retail; poorly paid, few benefits, little help/support from employers in advancement or edu |
| Women & Discrimination: 4 determinants of discrimination | -Taste discrimination: preference not to employ members of particular group -Monopoly: organized group excludes another group from positions -Error: underestimate ability of women to perform same work as men |
| -Statistical generalization: applying generalizations about group to an individual | |
| Women & Discrimination: clinical implications | -Important to be attuned to women's lack of self-efficacy in academic areas such as math & science & in pursuing nontraditional careers. -Challenge self-limiting assumptions & reinforce women's strengths to help increase career self-efficacy beliefs |
| Women & Discrimination: Data | -woman have similar unemp. rates to men but more in& out of labor force more frequently -Women's jobs less prestige -Women wages less than WM (worse for minority women) -Married women spend + time doing housework than husbands, even if they earn more |
| -Gender segregation: difference in distribution of men & women in various occupations -Gender desegregation w/growing service sector- more men entering occs. trad. female dominated -Women entering trad. male occs. will be stronger desegregation force | |
| Culturally Diverse Individuals & Discrimination in the Workplace | -Unemp. for AfAm & Latino/as greater than whites & asians -Type of occupations differ also (small proportion of high-skill jobs) -AfAm men higher unemp b/c fewer opportunities for less edu workers -Salaries 1/2 to 1/4 less |
| -Why? White Americans support equality but endorse stereotypical beliefs -Less discrimination in professional jobs -Housing: more difficult to find housing outside inner-city, where unemploymetn is higher | |
| Systems Theory Framework (STF): Arthur & McMahon, 2005 | -STF: a theoretical foundation that accounts for systems of influence on people's career development, including individual, social, & environmental/societal contexts |
| STF: Culture | -Culture influences in CD & support for using systemic approaches in career counseling -Emic: group specific ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, ability, age, etc.) Etic: universalistic, each person has a unique cultural background |
| Work Adjustment Theory | -Designed for voc rehab clients -Work is "continuous & dynamic process by which a worker seeks to achieve & maintain correspondence with a work environment" -Work adjustment indicated by length of time, or tenure at a job |
| WAT: 2 Components | Satisfaction: with the work one does, related to life satisfaction & general well-being. Extent to which individual needs and requirements are fulfilled by the work they do -Satisfactoriness: employer's satisfaction w/individual's performance |
| -This concern with tenure & performance distinguishes WAT from other theories focused on career selection or work adjustment but not performance | |
| Step 1: Assessing Abilities, Values, Personality, & Interests | -Abilities: reference dimensions for skills; encompassing aptitudes/predicted skills not acquired skills -General Aptitude Test Battery (GATA): example measure of ability widely used by employ counseling agencies -New version of GATB: ability profiler |
| GATB scales measure nine specific abilities: | -G: General learning ability (not in ability profiler); overall ability to learn, as well as general knowledge -V: Verbal ability; understanding of words and paragraphs |
| -N: Numerical ability [computation]; ability to perform basic arithmetic skills; [arithmetic reasoning]: ability to use basic mathematical & logic skills to solve probs that may occur at work, including skills of gathering & sorting info to solve probs | |
| -S: Spatial ability- ability to see objects in space & understand relationship btwn 2 & 3-D objects -P: Form perception- Ability to see details in 2 or 3-D drawings & make discriminations in shapes & shadings | |
| Q: Clerical ability [Clerical perception]- Ability to see differences in tables & lists that include words & numbers K: Eye/hand coordination [motor coordination]- ability to coordinate hand movements w/visual perception | |
| F: Finger dexterity- Ability to move small objects quickly & w/ precision M: Manual dexterity- Ability to use hands & arms in manipulating objects quickly & skillfully | |
| Values | -Values represent grouping of needs -Minnesota Importance Questionnaire is measure of needs; 20 scales -Every statement compared to every other statement -Clustered w/opposites: achievement w/comfort, status w/altruism, safety w/autonomy |
| -Achievement: Need to make use of abilities & do things w/sense of accomplishment -Comfort: Aspects that make job less stressful; Including being busy, working alone, doing different things, paid well | |
| -Status: Perception of others & recognition received; opportunity for advancement, prestige; Authority & telling others what to do -Altruism: How one helps or works w/others; work that feels morally correct | |
| -Safety: Fair policy enforcement; Support for supervisors -Autonomy: Making decisions on own; Use of own ideas | |
| Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ) | -Created in 1967 by Rounds, Henly Jr., Dawis, Lofquist, & Weiss -Requires 5th grade reading level -30-45 mins to complete -Available in Spanish & French also -Goal is to achieve an ideal occupation based on an individual's needs |
| MIQ: 21 work-related needs are grouped into 6 different values for work environment | 1. Achievement: environ that encourages accomplishment 2. Comfort: environ that is comfortable & non-stressful 3. Status: environ that provides recognition & prestige 4. Altruism: environ that fosters harmony w/& service to others |
| 5. Safety: environ that is predictable & stable 6. Autonomy: environ that stimulates initiative | |
| Dawis & Lofquist: Personality Styles | -How an individual w/particular abilities & values interacts w/work situation -Difficult to assess |
| 4 Characteristics of personality style | -Celerity: speed w/which on processes tasks -Pace: effort one spends in working -Rhythm: pattern of effort or pace -Endurance: how long one is likely to continue working on a task |
| Interests | -Derived from values & abilities -Found work values slightly better predictor of job satisfaction than interests (interest is secondary concept) |
| Step 2: Measuring the Requirements & Conditions of Occupations | -Measuring abilities & values accomplished by averaging GATB & MIQ scores |
| Ability Patterns | -Developed by US Dept of Labor -Describes important abilities required for various jobs -Assessed people successful in certain occupations & compares scores to theirs |
| Value Patterns | -Occupational Reinforcer Patterns assess how an occupation reinforces individual values -Measured by Minnesota Job Description Questionnaire |
| Combining Ability & Value Patterns | -Minnesota Occupational Classification System combines information from Occupational Ability Patterns & Occupational Reinforcer Patterns -2,106 occupations total |
| Step 3: Matching abilities, values, & reinforcers | -Adjustment style: how individual relates to occupational environment -Flexibility, activeness, reactiveness, & perseverance all concern relationship of individual to occupation |
| -Flexibility: ability of individual to tolerate unpleasant or difficult aspects of the job -When faced with unpleasant or difficult work situations, individuals may try to change the environment (activeness) or make a change in themseves (reactiveness) | |
| -Perseverance: how long an individual can tolerate adverse conditions before changing jobs | |
| Approach focusing on different variables: adaptive performance, satisfaction w/change, & well-being while dealing w/change: 3 variables of Adaptive performance | -Proactive behavior: actions individuals take to make changes in their work environment -Reactive behavior: how individuals change in themselves to adjust to work |
| -Tolerant behavior: how individuals tolerate difficult work issues when proactive or reactive behavior do not work | |
| Satisfaction with change | -individuals being able to enjoy the challenge of dealing with change |
| Factors leading to well-being | -personal factors such as cognitive ability, personality factors, & motivational factors -Issues in the workplace -Being able to manage stress is also important in individuals' well-being |
| Job Adjustment Counseling: Try to assess problems individuals may have in adjusting to their job | -Skills may not be sufficiently developed -Job may require skills person is unable to develop due to education or ability -Individual's values & needs not met by work environment -Problems at home may interfere with work performance |
| -Assess abilities of client & occupational ability patterns of job- compare the 2 & identify discrepancies -Find a way to intervene (find ways to improve satisfaction, make changes in work or reinforcer patterns) | |
| Adjustment to Retirement | -Task is to find work in a "nonwork environment" -Find a way to find reinforcers related to work environment in retirement environment -Assess skills, ability, needs, & values- find out what person finds valuable about working |
| -Assess financial needs -Assess changes in physical needs | |
| Applying theory to women & culturally diverse populations | -focus has been on large differences within groups -Women score higher: achievement, activity, company policies & practices, coworkers, independence, working conditions |
| -Men score higher: advancement, authority, creativity, responsibility, security, social status, supervision -WAT predicts job satisfaction of lesbian, gay, & bisexual individuals, despite discrimination | |
| -AfAms value staying busy, independence, compensation, job security | |
| John Holland (1919-2008) | -Self-directed search (SDS) developed using Hollard's theory that both people & working environs can be classified according to 6 basic types (RIASEC) -Holland served in army >3years working as test proctor & psychological assistant. |
| Holland's Theory of Types | -People express themselves, their interests, & values through work choice -Stereotypes: people's impressions & generalizations about work -Vocational Preference Inventory & Self-Directed Search: measure self-perceived competencies & interests |
| 6 Types | -Realistic -Investigative -Artistic -Social -Enterprising -Conventional |
| Realistic (R) | -Makes physical demands on indiv -Work settings have tools, machines, or animals that indiv manipulates -Indivs required to have technical competencies to fix & repair things -Ability to work w/things more important than interacting w/others |
| -Little tolerance for abstract/theoretical concepts -Approach probs in practical & prob-solving way -Value money, power, & status more than relationships -In counseling: want specific advice & suggestions; difficulty discussing feelings | |
| -Traditionally Masculine careers- women w/these interests may encounter resistance or harassment | |
| Investigative (I) | -Search for solutions to problems through math & scientific interests -Encouraged to use complex & abstract thinking to solve probs creatively -Computer programmer, physician, mathematician -Caution & critical thinking valued |
| -Work independently to solve probs, but not encouraged to use human relation skills -Enjoys puzzles & challenges -In counseling, view counselor as fellow investigator in solving a problem | |
| Artistic (A) | -Free & open environment, encourage creativity & personal expression -Musician, artist, writer -Allows structuring of own time & flexible dress codes -If tools are used they are means of expressing self (paint brush, musical instrument) |
| -Likely want to improve creative abilities -In counseling: Prefer unstructured; enjoy humor | |
| Social (S) | -Encourages flexibility & understanding of others, working w/& helping others -Emphasizes idealism, kindness, generosity -Education, social service, mental health professionals -Enjoy problem solving through discussion & teamwork |
| -Seek environments that require verbal & social skills -In counseling: more concerned w/bettering the world than focusing on own achievement; interested in counselor's profession & appreciative | |
| Enterprising (E) | -People manage & persuade others to attain organizational or personal goals -Finance & economic issues of importance & risk may e taken to achieve rewards -Tend to be self-confident, sociable, assertive -Sales, business management, politics |
| -Provide opportunity for power, status, & wealth -Enjoy working w/people, but prefer to persuade & manage rather than help others -In counseling: talk about past accomplishments; may overestimate abilities | |
| Conventional (C) | -Organization & planning, mostly office environments -Bookkeeping, accounting, clerical skills -Values money, being dependable, & following rules -Prefer being in control & don't like ambiguity |
| -Relationships tend to be directed toward task accomplishment -In counseling: present self as organized; depend on others for direction | |
| Combination of Types | -No work environment is only one type, all involve a combination of types -Occupations & personalities usually dominated by 1 or 2 types -Personal result usually 3-letter code |
| Explanatory Constructs: Congruence | -Relationship of personality to environment -More congruent relationship if personality & environment are more similar -Counselor's goal is to assess personality & assist in finding a congruent environment |
| Explanatory Constructs: Differentiation | -Subtracting the lowest score from the highest score -High number is differentiated & low number is undifferentiated -Undifferentiated more difficulty making career decisions |
| Explanatory Constructs: Consistency | -Similarity & dissimilarity of types -Not a goal of counseling, but differentiation & congruence can be -Inconsistent individuals usually choose occupation that fits one or two codes |
| Explanatory Constructs: Identity | -Clarity & stability of current & future goals AND stability of work environment -Are there clear goals & plan to accomplish these goals? -Can be major goal of counseling |
| Research | -Holland's 6 types has more research than any other CD theory -Congruence most important & most researched concept -Small relationship btwn congruence & satisfaction -Frequently paired with Big 5 |
| Applying Theory to Women | -Men likely to score higher on Realistic, Investigative, Enterprising -Women likely to score higher on Social, Artistic, Conventional -Men employed predominantly in Realistic categories (44%) & Enterprising (31%) |
| -Women employed predominantly in Social (24%) and Conventional (26%) careers -Some say biased against women, Holland says it's a reflection of societal & cultural expectations | |
| Applying to Culturally Diverse Populations | -Structure of interests adequately represent structure of diverse groups & did not vary significantly by gender or ethnicity -AfAm scored higher on Social, Enterprising, & Conventional, whites scored higher on Realistic & Investigative |
| -Research not consistent enough to make generalizations about specific groups -Did not fit Chinese individuals as well as Americans; tended to cluster into groups | |
| Counselor Issues | -Generally people prefer counseling approach similar to their type -Consider client's & counselor's personality types possibly being incongruent |
| -Counselor's most common types are SE, SI, or SA- predominantly Social w/secondary Enterprising, Investigative, or Artistic -Counselors usually differentiated, but clients may have litter differentiation | |
| Role of Assessment: Two Purposes | -Development of theory -Individuals in need of career assistance |
| Self-Directed Search (SDS) | -Career interest test asks questions about your aspirations, activities, skills, & interests in diff jobs. From the responses, SDS produces your personal three-letter Summary Code you can use to find occs & fields of study that match w/your personality |
| Myers-Briggs Type Theory | -Psychological theory by Jung adapted by Katharine Briggs -She and daughter, Isabel Myers, published Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) |
| 4 bipolar dimensions of MBTI | -Extraversion-introversion -Sensing-intuition -Thinking-Feeling -Judgment-Perception -2 most basic concepts: perception-judgement, extraversion-introversion |
| Perceiving & Judging: How individuals observe world & make decisions based on those perceptions | -Perceiving precedes judging -Perception: formed about events, people, objects, & ideas as they receive info |
| Two ways of perceiving | Sensing: taking in info through senses -preference for observing events around them - good memory for detail Intuition: use of unconscious -insight into observations & ideas -Focus on future events -abstract, creative |
| Judging (2 ways) | Thinking: analyzing & being objective about observed idea or event -concerned w/logic or analysis -Attempts to be objective |
| Feeling: subjective reaction, often related to one's values -Based on values applied to observations or ideas -Concerned w/impact abt judgment -Interested in human instead of technical problems | |
| Combinations of Perceiving & Judging: Sensing & Thinking | -Rely on sensing for perceiving & thinking for judgment -Focus on collecting facts verified by observations -Practical & pragmatic -Choose occupations w/analysis of facts (law, business management, accounting) |
| Combinations of Perceiving & Judging: Sensing & Feeling | -Rely on senses for perceiving & make decisions based on feelings -Interested in observations about people -Seek out medical professionals, social work, teaching -Think about how they will feel doing certain kids of work daily |
| Combinations of Perceiving & Judging: Intuition & Feeling | -Concerned about future possibilities -Feeling likely personal, warm, inspired -Creative approach & less concerned w/objects -Clergy, teaching college, advertising |
| Combinations of Perceiving & Judging: Intuition & Thinking | -Make decisions based on analysis of hunches & projections about future -Enjoy problem solving, especially theoretical issues -Seeks out scientific research, computing, & finances -Use intuition & thinking to project future |
| Extraversion & Introversion | Introversion: making perceptions & judgments based on own interests -inner world important -enjoy reflecting -prefer to solve problems by thinking about them before acting |
| Extraversion: using perceptions & judgement in outer world -Outer world important -like to take action -prefer to speak & interact w/others | |
| Dominant & Auxiliary Processes | -Dominant: Most important concept, guiding process -Auxiliary: second most important concept |
| Determining Dominant & Auxiliary Processes: Extraverts | Last letter of code (J or P) indicates dominant process -P (perception) is higher score than J -If P is last, middle letters = dominant/auxiliary -If J is last, middle letters = auxiliary/dominant |
| Ex: extravert w/ ESTJ would have T as dominant & S as auxiliary. Extravert w/ESTP would have S as dominant & T as auxiliary. | |
| Determining Dominant & Auxiliary Processes: Introverts | Last letter of code indicates auxiliary process -J higher than P -If P is last, middle letters = auxiliary/dominant -If J is last, middle letters = dominant/auxiliary |
| Ex: introvert w/ISTJ would have S as dominant & T as auxiliary. Introvert w/ISTP would have T as dominant & S as auxiliary | |
| Applying to Women & Culturally Diverse Populations | -75% of women prefer feeling to thinking; 56% of men prefer thinking -Slightly more men prefer introversion to extraversion & vice versa -Both men & women prefer sensing to intuition -Has been translated to several languages |
| -Counselors who prefer I, N, F, P types may devalue clients in minority cultures -AfAm students prefer judging more than NativeAm students -Falsification of types occurs when indivs encouraged to outwardly behave a type, but inwardly are different type |
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