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Theories Final
Theories of Personality Final Exam
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Existential Therapy: Basic Concepts | -Authenticity and Subjectivity -Existential Crisis |
| Authenticity and Subjectivity | -Authentic experience takes precedence over artificial explanations (theories) -Focus on subjectivity and authenticity of experience rather than "objective" diagnostic categories -common human element, we are all "Fellow Travelers" |
| Existential Crisis | -Crisis follows when we realize we are finite creatures. -We enter the world alone and leave the world alone. -Diagnosable presenting "symptoms" may mask existential crisis, they only confuse you and client |
| 4 Basic Ultimate Concerns | -Freedom -Isolation -Meaning -Death |
| Freedom | -Right to choose and deal w/consequences -Humans are authors of their own world -We are responsible for our choices, conflict between groundlessness and desire for ground/structure |
| Therapy Implications for Freedom | -Responsibility -Willing -Impulsivity -Compulsivity -Decision |
| Isolation | -each of us enters existence alone and must depart from it alone -Interpersonal Iso: Distance between self & others -Intrapersonal Iso: Disconnection from parts of self -Existential Iso: Divide between self and experience; cog dissonance |
| Meaning | -what is the meaning of life? -The search for meaning creates crises -individual's ability to overcome crisis is what creates the meaning |
| Meaning | -Positive adjustment: when we belief that we have meaning and are engaged in the fulfillment of "oneself" -Negative adjustment: When we are engaged in thoughts and behaviors that do not lead to fulfillment, satisfaction, or happiness |
| Death | -The most obvious ultimate concern; "A Terrible Truth" -Conflict between awareness of death and desire to live; to cope, we erect defenses against death awareness -Psychopathology is partly due to failure to deal with inevitability of death |
| Therapy and Freedom | -Freedom = capacity to choose within natural & self-imposed limits of living; implies responsibility; think "temperance" -Destiny refers to awareness of our limitations, ultimate limitation is death -Freedom & destiny are appreciated through struggle |
| Therapy and Isolation | -Authenticity must be modeled by therapist -Therapist meets patient in space between "I" and "you" -Therapeutic relationship is healing through use of therapist's presence, genuineness, & receptiveness; done from position of being a fellow traveler |
| Therapy and Meaning | -therapist must be aware of the importance of meaning -do not try and influence clients' meaning, they have their own |
| Therapy and Death | -"An awakening experience" -A personal confrontation w/death may cause a radical shift in life perspective and lead to personal change -Death anxiety may be a primary focus of therapy |
| Denial Systems: Specialness | -Individuals hold beliefs of personal inviolability, invulnerability, & immortality; unconsciously, individuals believe laws of biology do not apply to them -People camouflage their fears of death behind a belief that one's specialness will override it |
| Denial Systems: Belief in an Ultimate Rescuer | -Belief that someone is watching over in an indifferent world; people may imagine rescuer as human or divine -May result in passive, dependent, obsequious character structure -individuals may dedicate lives to locating and appeasing ultimate rescuer |
| Process and Content | -Therapeutic focus on current life situations and enveloping unconscious fears -Therapeutic relationship fundamentally important in itself, especially regarding engagement & connection -Emphasis on here-and-now, not longitudinal perspective |
| Therapeutic Goals | -Focus on patient's self experience and capacity for self-actualization and self-transcendence through engagement in life -Identify methods and instances of responsibility avoidance -Help patients make decisions and tolerate uncertainty |
| Mechanisms (8) | -Empathy -The here-and-now -Dreams -Fellow Traveler -Genuineness Therapists' personal therapy experiences Therapists transparency -Seeking unfolding, meeting, & presence |
| Existential Therapy in Multicultural World | - humans share dilemmas of existence & must come to terms w/ultimate concerns -Difficulties = individuals adopt broad formulas to manage UCs based on cultural & religious systems -cultures create belief systems, prevent confronting concerns |
| IPT Attachment Styles | Secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure, avoidant-insecure, disorganized-insecure |
| IPT recognizes what factors (3) | Genetics, personality, and early childhood factors |
| IPT conceptualizes psychopathology as having which 3 components? | Symptom formation (biological nature), social functioning (interpersonal context), Personality factors (temperament) |
| IPT refrains from doing what until there is overwhelming evidence? | Making Axis II diagnosis |
| IPT 4 most important and distinctive features | Conduct an interpersonal inventory, give the patient sick role, link symptoms to interpersonal situations, select problems areas associated with the onset of the current depressive episode |
| IPT Treatment: Initial Phase | Emphasis on: psychoeducation about depression-instill hope (sick role), managing px consequences from depression/creating time to heal, understanding how depression affects/is affected by px social ties & roles, ID 102 intrp prob areas |
| IPT Treatment: Middle Phase | Working on specific aspects related to symptoms. Prob areas addressed: grief, intrp disputes (renegotiation, impasse, dissolution), role transitions, intrp defictis |
| IPT Treatment: Termination Phase | evaluating depressive symptoms to determine if px is full/part responder; Address px sadness &/or anx abt ending tx; increasing px competence & independence in continuing gains; reviewing useful skills; reducing guilt if IPT was unsuc.; maintenance ITP? |
| The Big Five | Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Openness to experience |
| Extraversion | -Characterized by positive emotions, sergeancy, & tendency to seek stimulation and company of others -High: gregarious, increased activity, assertive, excitement-seeking, positive emotionality, warmth Low: reserved, isolate, quiet, inhibited |
| -More resistant to distraction and cognitive interference -increased levels typically correlate w/better performance on tasks requiring divided attention -sociability related to positive affect & warmth -impulsivity related to negative affect | |
| Agreeableness | -Tendency to be compassionate & cooperative, rather than suspicious & antagonistic towards others -High: straightforward, trusting, altruistic, modest, tender-minded, compliant -Low: aggressive, ruthless, hostile, suspicious |
| -Includes altruism, affection, humaneness, sincerity -Most related to good parenting in mothers: high agreeableness + low neuroticism -Highly correlated with job performance | |
| Conscientiousness | -Tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, & aim for achievement -High: self-diciplined, responsible, competent, ordered, deliberate, strive for achievement -Low: lazy, aimless, prone to quitting easily |
| -Most related to success across employment & situations: high levels in college-aged individuals predicts job success in future -Related to good scores on integrity tests | |
| Neuroticism | -Tendency to experience negative emotions including anger, anxiety, and/or depression |
| -High: anxious, self-conscious (negatively), prone to depressive features, vulnerable, impulsive, angry hostility (jealous, envious) -Low: calm, even tempered, unemotional, emotionally stable | |
| -High N= increased levels of psychological distress due to: high stress reactivity generating more arguments & hurt feelings; inability to delay gratification; interpret ordinary sits as more threatening than truly are, minor frustrations as hopeless sits | |
| High N= tendency to experience more somatic symptoms due to irritation, anger, & nervousness | |
| Openness to experience (INTELLECT; IMAGINATION) | -Increased levels in creative people who synthesize art & information -Correlated with: active intelligence, education, huber of career changes, aesthetic interests & sensitivity, intellectual absorption, broad values |
| Criticisms of the Big 5 | -model is theory-driven rather than determined by empirical inevitability -cannot encompass all of human personality -some say too broad, some say too narrow -Not enough clarity over what the factors actually mean |
| Evolutionary Psychology Foundation | -True foundation dates back to the emergence of Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection |
| Three main questions of natural selection | -Why does change take place? -How does a new species emerge? -What are the functions of various "parts"? |
| Key to natural selection | -differential reproduction success is b/c of heritable variants (everyone has ancestors, but not everyone leaves descendants) |
| Natural selection provided key answers (3) | -explained change over time: descent w/modification -Explained purposeful quality of "parts": adaptive functioning -united species into one descent tree: including humans |
| Natural selection cannot explain some facts and observational evidence: peacocks, sexual dimorphism, etc | -Theory of sexual selection was put forth to explain these holes |
| Evolutionary Psychology Core Tenets | -All behavior is function of psychological mechanism (PM) & input from these mechanisms -all PM originate from evolutionary process -natural & sexual selection are most important evolutionary processes responsible for creating PM |
| -Evolved PM can be described as information processing devices -Evolved PM are evident in brain & its functioning -Evolved PM are functional-designed to solve a recurrent adaptive problem | |
| Behavioral Therapy Basic Concepts | -Focused on changing behavior -Rooted in empiricism & observation -Assumes behaviors have function (adaptive or not-like prostitution) -emphasizes maintenance of factors rather than factors that may have initially triggered problem (what's present now) |
| -Practical, here-and-now, experiential emphasis -Techniques can be adapted to meet developmental level of px -Action-oriented: matches to fact that children and most ppl learn by doing -Incorporates rewards, helps engage px (and therapist) | |
| Classical Conditioning | *Unconditioned Stimulus/UCS (sight of food) ----> Unconditioned Response/UCR (salivation) *Conditioned Stimulus/CS (bell) ----> Conditioned Response/CR (salivation) |
| Generalization and Discrimination | -Responds to related stimuli with the same or similar response (different bell) -No response |
| Extinction | -After learning has occurred, removing the UCS ultimately results in a decreased probability that CR will occur (ring bell without presenting food and eventually dog will not respond to bell) |
| Spontaneous Recovery | After a delay in time: -stimulus is presented again and CR reoccurs -behavior extinguishes rapidly if the UCS does not follow quickly |
| Reinforcement vs Punishments | -Defined by their effects -Reinforcers INCREASE probability of response -Punishment DECREASES probability of response |
| Positive vs Negative | -Positive adds something -Negative takes something away -Positive reinforcement: cookie; Negative reinforcement: no more nagging -Positive Punishment: spanking; Negative punishment: no TV |
| Vicarious Learning | -AKA "modeling" -Learning occurs through observation: Particularly relevant in children, but applies to all ages; by observing a model, one grasps broad behaviors & component parts; may remain dormant until sit. warrants expression of learned behavior |
| Reinforcement Schedules (6) | 1. Continuous: every response is followed by reinforcement-fast learning, fast extinction 2. Intermittent: not every response is reinforced-ultimately leads to stronger response |
| 3. Fixed Ratio: Delivers reinforcement after fixed number of responses- produces high response rate (commission work) ex: car salesman gets a bonus after selling 5 cars. Bonus (reinforcement) is dependent on the number of cars (ratio). | |
| 4. Fixed Interval: Reinforces the next response that occurs after a fixed time period (scheduled exams or assignments) ex: car salesman gets a paycheck every 2 weeks as long as he sells one car. Pay (reinforcement) depends on time (interval). | |
| 5. Variable Interval: Deliver reinforcements after unpredictable time periods (fishing) ex: Car salesman gets bonus when sup. randomly shows up and sees him engaging w/ customer. Never knows when sup will show up (variable interval) | |
| 6. Variable Ratio: highest rates of response and greatest resistance to extinction; # of responses changes after each reinforcer is presented, average # correct responses is important | |
| ex: Sell 5 cars for 1st bonus, 3 for 2nd, 7 for 3rd, 6 for 4th, 4 for 5th. Average is 5 cars, but salesman never knows how many he needs for next bonus, but knows that each car sold brings him closer to the next bonus. | |
| -SLOT MACHINES: set to pay out after diff. number of plays (variable ratio), & person never knows when it will be. If you stop, never know if that next play is jackpot. Reinforcement depends on behavior completion, not time. Must play in order to win | |
| Behavioral Therapy: How can treatment ambivalence be addressed? | Motivational interviewing: client-centered approach designed to help clients explore & resolve sources of ambivalence abt therapy |
| Behavioral Therapy: Mental Health Applications | -Anxiety disorders: phobias, panic d/o, OCD, PTSD -Depression -Marital probs -behavioral medicine -childhood d/os: behav. probe, hyperactive, autism, enuresis -sub use -eating d/os -schizophrenia |
| Behavioral Therapy: Treatment Strategies | -Behavioral activation -Exposure-based: in vivo, imaginal, interoceptive -Response prev. -Operant-conditioning strateg.: ABA -Reinforcement-based strateg.: differential reinf., contingency mnagmt -Punishment-based strateg.: aversive conditioning |
| -Physiological monitoring -Role-playing -Self-monitoring -Behavioral observation: relaxation (box breathing) -Cognitive restructuring -Assertiveness training -Social skills training -Stimulus control techniques | |
| Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT): Basic Characteristics | -Practical & symptom-focused -empirically-supported techniques, but philosophically-based concepts -requires px collaboration -change=id irrational thought process: specific thought patterns id -bx & thought processes evaluated & criticized when nec. |
| ABCD Model | A= Activating Events B= Behavior/ Belief system C= Consequences D= Dispute |
| We experience: -Activating Events (A) that prompt us to look at, interpret, &/or think abt what's occurring. -Our interp. of events results in Beliefs (B) abt event, world, & our role in event -Emotional Consequences (C) based on our beliefs | |
| A (activating events) contribute to C (consequences) by B (making us believe and behave a certain way). We can D (dispute) our thoughts and behaviors after reflection and concluding they are irrational. | |
| REBT: Basic Tenets | 1. People have potential to be: rational, self-preserving, creative, functional, & metacognitive OR irrational, self-destructive, hedonists, dysfunctional 2. Culture & family OFTEN perpetuate irrational thinking |
| 3. Humans perceive, think, emote, & behave simultaneously (these are often synergistic & reinforcing) 4. All psychotherapies are not equally effective | |
| 5. a warm therapeutic relationship isn't necessary or sufficient condition for change 6. REBT uses whatever techniques work; focus is not symptom-removal but real cognitive change | |
| 7. Neurotic thinking is result of unrealistic, illogical thinking- we all engage in 8. Causes of an individual's probs are not the events that happened, but how individual perceives them | |
| 9. There's an element between stimulus and response; it's thought & emotional response (the B between A and C). | |
| 10. REBT provides powerful insights into our thinking, feeling, & behaving -Insite #1: Working through ABCD process -#2: People are distressed b/c they are reinforcing irrational thoughts -#3: Only hard work & practice will correct irrational thinking | |
| REBT: Main Therapy Goals | 1. REBT assists px in seeing how giving up perfectionism improves their lives 2. teaches px to differentiate btwn desires & "musts" (get rid of "musterbation": I must do well-yourself; you must treat me well-environment; the world must be easy- future) |
| 3. Behavioral techniques used in REBT to change habits as well as cognition | |
| REBT: Mechanisms of Therapy | -regardless of what feeling px discusses, focus is on lx's irrational beliefs (therapist is not distracted or deterred by feelings, focus is on thoughts behind those feelings)- I don't care what you feel, I want to know what you're thinking |
| -REBT therapists don't hesitate to contradict px's beliefs & are often one step ahead, while showing acceptance -REBT therapists may do more talking than px -Strongest philosophical approach possible is used | |
| -Therapist doesn't just tell px their beliefs are irrational, but encourages px to see this | |
| REBT: Applications | -Most effective w/single symptom problems, including: anger management issues, religious clients, school aged children -Preventative purposes -Field of education, especially regarding enhancing normative dvlpmt |
| REBT: Multicultural Applications | -Clients can uncond. accept self & others, & achieve frustration tolerance facing adversity -Multicultural probs may exist but can be resolved w/minimal inter/intracultural prejudice -most MC issues involve bias & intol. REBT particularly works against |
| Integrative Psychotherapy- Synthesizing | -Idea of bringing together or combining different congruent psychotherapies -First appeared in 1930s, was the beginnings of integrative psychotherapy |
| Integrative Psychotherapy: Other associated terms | -Eclecticism -Integration -Rapproachement -Differential therapeutics -Prescriptive matching |
| Integrative Psychotherapy: 4 Major Pathways | -Technical eclecticism (most common) -Theoretical integration -Common factors -Assimilative integration |
| Integrative Psychotherapy: Treatment process spends a lot of time on _________ __________? (6) | Patient characteristics: -Diagnosis -Stages of Change -Coping Style -Reactance Level -Patient Preferences -Culture |
| Integrative: Diagnosis | The one patient characteristic with the least amount of evidence of differential treatment effects. *Therapeutic alliance is greatest predictor of therapy success, treatment approach has the least prediction effect* |
| Integrative: Stages of Change | -Precontemplation: no intention to change (mandated); unaware or under-aware of prob; therapist's best stance is nurturing -Contemplation: Aware prob exists; thinking abt thinking abt changing; therapists role is socratic teacher |
| -Preparation: combines intent & behavioral criteria; intent to make signify. changes in near future -Action: modifies behavior, experiences, & enviro; role=experienced coach -Maintenance: preventing relapse; consolidating gains; role=consultant | |
| Integrative: Coping Style | -Externalizing: impulsive, stimulation seeking, extroverted (symptom-focusd & skill-building techniques more effective) -Internalizing: self-critical, inhibited, introverted (insight & awareness-enhancing therapies more effective) |
| Integrative: Reaction Level | -Cluster of behaviors associated with resistance: being easily provoked by external demands (High = respond to non-directive, self-directed, or paradoxical techniques; Low = Respond to directive & structural techniques) |
| Integrative: Patient Preference(s) | -Responsiveness to px preferences: one of the most potent means to enhance therapeutic alliance; positive TA is common theme through most treatment modalities |
| Integrative: Culture | -Defined broadly to include ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, disability status, & age -Multicultural competence is not simply an ethnic/political idea, also a clinical necessity in integrative -Tx methods/relationships must fit px's culture |
| Multicultural Psychotherapy: Terminology | -Culture: defined as individual's total environment -Worldview: refers to people's systemized ideas & beliefs about their universe -Multicultural: refers to interaction between people across a culture |
| Multicultural: Ethnocentrism | The belief that one's worldview is inherently superior and desirable when compared to others |
| Multicultural: Power differentials based on: | -Race -Gender -Social class -Sexual orientation -Age -Religion -National origin -Ability/disability -Language -Place of residence -Ideology -Membership in other marginalized groups |
| Multicultural: cultural constructionism | A process whereby individuals construct their world through social processes that contain cultural symbols and metaphors |
| Multicultural: Types of Worldviews (2) | -Collectivistic: identity is associated with relationships to others -Denominated: individualistic, identity is associated with independence from others |
| Multicultural: 5 step continuum of cultural competence | Destructive --->Incapability ---> Blindness ---> Pre-competence ---> Competence |
| -Destructive: attitudes, policies, & practices are destructive to cultures & individuals -Incapacity: racial superiority of dominant group; cultural blindness (belief that culture makes no difference) | |
| -Blindness: individuals believe that culture makes no difference (the values of dominant culture are universally applicable & beneficial) -Pre-Competence: aware of needs but unaware of exactly how to proceed | |
| -Competence: possessing set of knowledge, behaviors, attitudes, skills, and policies needed to work effectively in multicultural situations | |
| Multicultural: Cultural Dimensions (8) | -Language: fits client's worldview -Persons: therapeutic relationship -Metaphors: shared concepts of cultural group -Content: Therapist's cultural knowledge -Concepts: treatment concepts culturally consonant with client's context |
| -Goals: objectives inline with client's adaptive cultural values -Method: cultural adaptation and validation of methods/tools -Context: client's environment, including history & situation | |
| Multicultural: ADDRESSING Framework | A: Age D: Disabilities (developmental) D: Disabilities (acquired) R: Religion E: Ethnicity S: Socioeconomic status S: Sexual orientation I: Indigenous heritage N: National origin G: Gender |
| Multicultural: The ethnocentric stages | -Denial: deny existence of cultural differences, avoid culturally diverse people -Defense: recognize other cultures but denigrate them -Minimization: view own culture as universal |
| Multicultural: The ethnorelative stages | -Acceptance: recognize & value cultural differences -Adaptation: develop multicultural skills -Integration: sense of self expands to include diverse world views |
| 4 Factors of Psychopathy | -Interpersonal -Affective -Lifestyle -Antisocial |
| Construct drift/shift | -Through time and scientific advancement, our understanding of a construct changes so much that it may seem like we are looking at a completely different thing. -Psychopathy shift is more appropriately termed CONSTRUCT SHIFT |
| Psychopathy as a construct | -Operates on a continuum, dimensional component -Latent concept, not directly observable -Characteristics of psychopath were established but not researched, possibly a construct: this is what society views as a psychopath |
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