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Psychology Exam 2
Chapter 5: Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Developmental Psychology | The study of continuity and change across the life span on different dimensions. |
| Major issues in developmental psychology | Nature vs Nurture, Continuity vs Stages, and Stability vs Change. |
| Dimensions along which children develop | motor, social, cognitive, linguistic |
| Principles underlying all areas of development | development is growth, interaction of heredity and environment, and orderly progression |
| Why is development orderly? | It is based on maturation: genetic instructions that cause various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence |
| (nature) sets the basic course of development, while (nurture) adjusts it | maturation; experience |
| What is maturation? | The orderly sequence of biological growth |
| What is cognitive development? | The emergence of the ability to think and understand how the physical world works, how our minds represent the world, and how other minds represent the world. |
| According to Piaget | cognitive development results from biological development shaped by experiences with the environment, children gain knowledge by constructing reality out of experience, and children use schemas to organize experience. |
| What is a schema? | general concepts involving theories about or models of the way the world works; concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences |
| What is assimilation? | Interpreting new experiences in terms of our current understands (schemas). Occurs anytime a person comes across a new experience. |
| What is accommodation? | Adjusting our schemas to incorporate information provided by new experiences. Occurs when and as we interact with the world. |
| Mental growth | involves major qualitative changes represented by stages of cognitive development: sensory motor intelligence, pre-operational period, concrete operational period, and formal operational period |
| How does the child acquire information about the world during the sensorimotor stage? | Through the senses and actions: looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping |
| Sensorimotor Period (Birth-2) | child experiences the world through senses and actions, child develops basic schemas, begins to act intentionally, shows the beginning of object permanence, and develops stranger anxiety |
| What is object permanence? | The awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived. |
| What kinds of things can a child do after acquiring object permanence that s/he could not do before? | a child understands that s/he can look for an object after it is hidden; understands the fact that just because s/he cannot see the object, does not mean that it is not there. |
| What kind of cognitive abilities does the child acquire during the sensorimotor stage? | object permanence and stranger anxiety |
| Pre-operational Stage (2-7) | child can represent things in words and images, uses intuitive rather than logical reasoning, common misconceptions of the world, lacks conservation, egocentric, and begins to develop a theory of the mind. |
| Common misconceptions of the world during the pre-operational stage | inanimate objects are alive, everything is casual, fooled by appearances, cant tell real from imagined |
| What is conservation? | the understanding that an object can retain a property under a variety of transformations; the understanding that although an object's appearance changes, it still stays the same in quantity |
| What kinds of things can a child do after acquiring conservation that s/he could not do before? | a child understands that when you pour a liquid into a different shaped glass, the amount of liquid stays the same |
| To gain conservation, must learn: | to focus on operations-not results, transformations are reversible, focus on more than one dimension at a time. |
| What is egocentrism? | child can only see the world from his/her point of view. |
| What is theory of mind? | Understanding that other people think differently, have different ideas, and a different understanding |
| What kinds of things can a child do after acquiring a theory of mind that s/he could not do before? | S/he can see a situation from someone else's perspective |
| How are concepts of egocentrism and theory of mind related? | in order to have a theory of mind, one must have lost egocentrism |
| What kind of cognitive abilities does the child acquire during the pre-operational stage of development? | pretend play, egocentrism, and development of theory of mind |
| Concrete Operations (7-11) | can think logically about concrete objects and events, understands how actions can affect or transform concrete objects, understands conservation, and has reversibility and transformation |
| What kind of cognitive abilities does the child acquire during the stage of concrete operational development? | conservatism, mathematical transformation, and the ability to understand cause and effect |
| Formal Operations (11-adult) | reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking, can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason, can make abstract moral judgments, can think about God in deeper terms, think about how ideals can be reached |
| Increasingly sophisticated cognition may be due to development of the frontal cortex | gradual myelination of the frontal lobes |
| What kind of cognitive abilities does the child acquire during the stage of formal operational development? | abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning, and can think from the view of others |
| Problems with Piaget: | development is a continuous process, children express their mental abilities and operations at an earlier age, and formal logic is a smaller part of cognition |
| In Vygotsky's view of cognitive development, what causes the child's mind to grow? | Through interaction with the social environment, believed that by mentoring children and giving them new words, parents and others provide a temporary scaffold from which children can step to higher levels of thinking |
| Language | provides the building blocks for thinking |
| Zone of proximal development | the range of accomplishments that are beyond what a child could do alone but can do with help and guidance |
| Vygotsky's view depends on three fundamental skills: | joint attention, social referencing, and imitation |
| joint attention | the ability to focus on what another person is focused on |
| social referencing | the ability to use another person's reactions as information about the world |
| Piaget, children's moral thinking shifts from: | realism to relativism, prescriptions to principles, and outcomes to intentions |
| What are the three stages of moral development in Kohlberg's theory? | Pre-conventional morality (preoperational thinking), conventional morality (concrete operational thinking), and post-conventional morality (formal operational thinking) |
| Pre-conventional morality | the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor; lowest level |
| Conventional morality | the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules or laws |
| Post-conventional morality | the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values, even if this means breaking social/sovereign laws |
| Problems with Kohlberg | reasoning may differ based on context, moral thinking may or may not correlate with moral behavior, compassion vs justice, and moral reasoning may be based on emotional reactions |
| Moral intuitionist perspective | perceptions of right and wrong are evolutionarily emotional reactions |
| What is Haidt's idea of moral intuition? | the mind makes moral judgments as it makes aesthetic judgments- quickly and automatically |
| Erikson's Stages of Social Development: Infancy (birth-18 months) | trust vs mistrust based on whether or not a child's needs are reliably met most important stage |
| Erikson's Stages of Social Development: Toddlerhood (18 months-3 years) | autonomy vs shame/doubt based on whether the child has good experiences attempting to do things independently |
| Erikson's Stages of Social Development: Preschool (3-6 years) | initiative vs guilt based on whether the child can initiate original tasks and carry out personal plans |
| Erikson's Stages of Social Development: Elementary School (6 years-puberty) | competency (industry) vs inferiority depends on whether the child can do things well or correctly, compared to others or a standard |
| Autonomy | doing for yourself what other people have done for you |
| Doubt | questioning your own ability to do something |
| Shame | feeling like you are bad for doing something |
| Erikson's Stages of Social Development: Adolescence (puberty into 20s) | identity vs role confusion depends on whether the person can develop a refined sense of self by experimenting with and then integrating different identities |
| Erikson's Stages of Social Development: Young Adulthood (20s through early 40s) | intimacy vs isolation depends on developing the mature ability to love and form long term committed relationships |
| Achieved identity | know who you are, what you like, and who you like |
| Foreclosed identity | refuses to engage in the process, puts on rigid blinders- mostly extremely talented youth who were expected to do one talent. parents are invested in child's identity an the child feels he must conform to it |
| Moratorium identity | feels good right now but it isn't where you want to end up |
| Diffuse identity | do not really have one, not a clear sense of identity or who they are or self worth. try to adopt their identity from people around them |
| Erikson's Stages of Social Development: Middle Adulthood (40s through 60s) | generativity vs stagnation depends on whether the person discovers a sense of value by investing in the next generation or something larger than the self |
| Erikson's Stages of Social Development: Late Adulthood (60s and older) | integrity vs despair depends on whether the person can reflect back on life with a sense of acceptance and satisfaction |
| What is the concept of emerging adulthood? | a period from the late teens to mid-twenties bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood |
| What factors contribute to a happy marriage? | similarity of interests and values, sharing of emotional and material support, intimate self disclosure, smiling, touching, complimenting, and laughing |
| What factors contribute to an unhappy marriage? | cohabitation,insults, fighting, criticism, sarcasm, low self-disclosure |
| Most common career changes | teacher and cleric- feel like they are passing something down to other generations |
| What is attachment? | An emotional tie with another person shown in children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress upon separation. creates an internal working model of relationships, and often argued to form the basis of all other relationships |
| What is imprinting? | the process by which certain animals form rigid attachments during a critical period very early in life |
| What is a critical period? | a period where attachments based on familiarity are formed and certain events must take place to facilitate proper development |
| Securely attached | moms are warm and responsive, sensitive to babies signals, enjoy contact, express emotion, and encourage exploration. Mom leaves: child distressed, Mom returns: child happy |
| Insecure-Anxious Resistant | moms try to provide comfort and affection but misread child's signals. Mom leaves and returns: child distressed |
| Insecure-Anxious Avoidant | Moms are impatient, frustrated, self-centered, and see child's needs as interfering with their plans. Mom leaves and returns child doesn't react |
| Disorganized Attachment | Moms are very abusive. Mom leaves and returns: child has mixed reactions |
| long term consequences: secure attachment | become secure children and do better on every dimension |
| long term consequences: insecure-anxious resistant | become insecure kids with more behavioral problems: clinging and attention seeking |
| long term consequences: insecure-anxious aviodant | become insecure kids, more aggressive, detached from others, difficulty discussing their feelings |
| How is temperament connected to attachment? | Babies with a difficult temperament are harder to predict and care for in general, and babies with inconsistent care are more likely to develop insecure attachments. Temperament affects care and therefore the attachments that are formed. |
| Parenting styles: Authoritarian (top-down) | parents strictly control the child, child has little input and cannot argue, parents offer few explanations, high demandingness/low responsiveness |
| Parenting styles: Permissive (bottom-up) | parents do not assert authority, few rules or demands upon child, children are in charge, low demandingness/high responsiveness |
| Parenting styles: Authoritative (interactive) | parents exercise authority, kids are encouraged to provide input, parents offer explanations, high demandingness/high responsiveness |
| Outcomes: Authoritarian | children tend to have less social skill and lower self-esteem, they are more vulnerable to stress and substance abuse, and are dependent |
| Outcomes: Permissive | children tend to be more aggressive and immature, they lack self-control |
| Outcomes: Authoritative | children tend to exhibit the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competences of the three parenting styles |
Created by:
cawleyae
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