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Purdue PSY120 Exam 1
Exam 1 vocab words... all 303 of them.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| applied psychologist | psychologists who extend the principles of scientific psychology to practical problems in the world |
| behavior | observable actions, activities of cells, thoughts and feelings |
| behaviorism | a school of psychology proposing that the only proper subject matter of psychology is observable behavior rather than immediate conscious experience |
| clinical psychologists | they specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems |
| cognitive revolution | the shift away from strict behaviorism, begun in the 1950s, characterized by renewed interest in fundamental problems of consciousness and the internal mental processes |
| culture | shared values, customs, and beliefs of a group or community |
| eclectic approach | the idea that it's useful to select information from several sources rather than to rely entirely on a single perspective or school of thought |
| empiricism | the idea that knowledge comes directly from experience |
| evolutionary psychology | a movement proposing that we're born with mental processes and "software" that were acquired through natural selection in our ancestral past and help us to solve specific adaptive problems |
| functionalism | an early school of psychology; functionalists believed that the proper way to understand mind and behavior is to first analyze their function and purpose |
| gestalt psychology | a movement proposing that certain organizing principles of perception are innate and cannot be altered by experience |
| humanistic psychology | a movement in psychology that focuses on people's unique capacities for choice, responsibility, and growth |
| mind | the contents and processes of subjective experience: sensations, thoughts and emotions. |
| nativism | the idea that some knowledge is innate, or present at birth |
| psychiatrists | medical doctors who specialize in the diagnoses and treatment of psychological problems |
| psychoanalysis | a term used by Freud to describe his theory of mind and system of therapy |
| psychology | the scientific study of behavior and mind |
| research psychologists | psychologists who try to discover the basic principles of behavior and mind |
| structuralism | an early school of psychology; structuralists tried to understand the mind by breaking it down into basic parts |
| systematic introspection | an early technique used to study the mind; systematic introspection required people to look inward and describe their own experiences |
| case study | a descriptive research technique in which the effort is focused on a single case, usually an individual |
| confidentiality | the principle that personal information obtained from a participant in research or therapy should not be revealed without the individual's permission |
| confounding variable | an uncontrolled variable that changes along with the independent variable |
| correlation | a statistic that indicates whether two variables vary together in a systematic way; correlation coefficients vary from +1.00 to -1.00 |
| debriefing | at the conclusion of an experimental session, informing the participants about the general purpose of the experiment, including any deception that was involved |
| dependent variable | the behavior that is measured or observed in an experiment |
| descriptive research | methods designed to observe and describe behavior |
| descriptive statistics | mathematical techniques that help researchers describe their data |
| double-blind study | neither participants nor research observers are aware of who has been assigned to the experimental and control groups; it is used to control for both participant and experimenter expectancies |
| experimental research | a technique in which the investigator actively manipulates the environment to observe its effect on behavior |
| external validity | the extent to which results generalize to other situations or are representative of real life |
| independent variable | the aspect of the environment that is manipulated in an experiment. It must consist of at least two conditions |
| inferential statistics | mathematical techniques that help researches decide whether data are representative of a population or whether differences among observations can be attributed to chance. |
| informed consent | the principle that before consenting to participate in research, people should be fully informed about any significant factors that could affect their willingness to participate |
| internal validity | the extent to which an experiment has effectively controlled for confounding variables; internally valid experiments allow for the determination of causality. |
| mean | the average of a set of data points |
| median | the central value in a set of data points organized from high to low or low to high (half of the scores are above and half of the scores are below) |
| mode | the most frequently occurring data point |
| naturalistic observation | a descriptive technique that records naturally occurring behavior as opposed to behavior produced in the laboratory |
| operational definitions | definitions that specify how concepts can be observed and measured |
| placebo | an inactive, or inert, substance that resembles an experimental substance |
| random assignment | a technique ensuring that each participant in an experiment has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions in the experiment |
| random sampling | a procedure guaranteeing that everyone in the population has an equal likelihood of being selected for the sample |
| range | the difference between the largest and smallest scores in a distribution |
| reactivity | when behavior changes as a result of the observation process |
| scientific method | a multistep technique that generates empirical knowledge (knowledge that is derived from systematic observations of the world_ |
| single-blind study | experimental participants do not know to which condition they have been assigned (experimental group vs control group); it is used to control for participant expectancies |
| standard deviation | an indication of how much individual scores differ or vary from the mean |
| survey | a descriptive research technique designed to gather limited amounts of information form many people, usually by administering some kind of questionnaire |
| variability | a measure of how much scores in a distribution of scores differ from one another |
| acetycholine | a neurotransmitter that plays multiple roles in the central and peripheral nervous systems, including the excitation of muscle contractions |
| action potential | the all-or-none electrical signal that travels down a neuron's axon |
| adaptation | a trait that has been selected for by nature because it increases the reproductive "fitness" of the organism |
| autonomic system | the collection of nerves that controls the more automatic needs of the body (heart rate, digestion, blood pressure); part of the peripheral nervous system |
| axon | the long tail like part of a neuron that is the cell's transmitter |
| central nervous system | the brain and the spinal cord |
| cerebellum | a hindbrain structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the coordination of complex motor skills |
| cerebral cortex | the outer layer of the brain, considered to be the seat of higher mental processes |
| computerized tomography scan | the use of highly focused beams of x-rays to construct detailed anatomical maps of the living brain |
| corpus callosum | the collection of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and allows information to pass from one side to the other |
| dendrites | the fibers that extend outward from a neuron and receive information from other neurons |
| dopamine | a neurotransmitter that has been linked to reward and pleasure systems in the brain; decreased levels have been linked to Parkinson disease, and increased levels have been linked to schizophrenia |
| electroencephalograph | A device used to monitor the electrical activity of the brain |
| endocrine sysem | a network of glands that uses the bloodstream, rather than neurons, to send chemical messages that regulate growth and other internal functions |
| family studies | the similarities and differences among biological relatives are studied to help discover the role heredity plays in physical or psychological traits |
| forebrain | the outer portion of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and the structures of the limbic system |
| frontal lobe | one of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located on the top front of the brain; it contains the motor cortex and may be involved in higher-level thought processes |
| gamma-amino-butyric acid | A neurotransmitter that may play a role in the regulation of anxiety; it generally produces inhibitory effects |
| genes | Segments of chromosomes that contain instructions for influencing and creating particular hereditary characteristics. |
| genotype | The actual genetic information inherited from one’s parents. |
| glial cells | Cells that fill in space between neurons, remove waste, or help neurons to communicate efficiently. |
| glutamate | The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. |
| hindbrain | A primitive part of the brain that sits at the juncture point where the brain and spinal cord merge. Structures in the hindbrain, including the medulla, pons, and reticular formation, act as the basic lifesupport system for the body. |
| hormones | Chemicals released into the blood by the various endocrine glands to help control a variety of internal regulatory functions. |
| hypothalamus | A forebrain structure thought to play a role in the regulation of various motivational activities, including eating, drinking, and sexual behavior. |
| interneurons | Cells that transfer information from one neuron to another; interneurons make no direct contact with the outside world. |
| limbic systems | A system of structures thought to be Involved In motivational and emotional behaviors (the amygdala) and memory (the hippocampus). |
| magnetic resonance imaging | A device that uses magnetic fields and radio-wave pulses to construct detailed, three-dimensional images of the brain; “functional” MRIs can be used to map changes in blood oxygen use as a function of task activity. |
| midbrain | The middle portion of the brain, containing such structures as the tectum, superior colliculus, and inferior colliculus; midbrain structures serve as neural relay stations and may help coordinate reactions to sensory events. |
| motor neurons | Cells that carry information away from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands that directly produce behavior. |
| mutation | A spontaneous change in the genetic material that occurs during the gene replication process. |
| myelin sheath | An insulating material that protects the axon and helps to speed up neural transmission. |
| nerves | Bundles of axons that make up neural “transmission cables.” |
| neurons | The cells in the nervous system that receive and transmit information. |
| neuroscience | An interdisciplinary field of study directed at understanding the brain and its relation to behavior. |
| neurotransmitters | Chemical messengers that relay information from one neuron to the next. |
| occipital lobe | One of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located at the back of the brain; visual processing is controlled there. |
| parietal lobe | One of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located roughly on the top middle portion of the brain; it contains the somatosensory cortex, which controls the sense of touch. |
| peripheral nervous system | The network of nerves that links the central nervous system with the rest of the body. |
| phenotype | A person’s observable characteristics, such as red hair. The phenotype is controlled mainly by the genotype, but it can also be influenced by the environment. |
| pituitary gland | A kind of master gland in the body that controls the release of hormones in response to signals from the hypothalamus. |
| positron emission tomography | A method for measuring how radioactive substances are absorbed in the brain; it can be used to detect how specific tasks activate different areas of the living brain. |
| reflexes | Largely automatic body reactions—such as the knee jerk—that are controlled primarily by spinal cord pathways. |
| refractory period | The period of time following an action potential when more action potentials cannot be generated. |
| resting potential | The tiny electrical charge in place between the inside and the outside of the resting neuron. |
| sensory neurons | Cells that carry environmental messages toward the spinal cord and brain. |
| serotonin | A neurotransmitter that has been linked to sleep, dreaming, and general arousal and may also be involved in some psychological disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. |
| soma | The cell body of a neuron. |
| somatic system | The collection of nerves that transmits information toward the brain and connects to the skeletal muscles to initiate movement; part of the peripheral nervous system. |
| synapse | The small gap between the terminal buttons of a neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another neuron. |
| temporal lobe | One of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located roughly on the sides of the brain; it’s involved in certain aspects of speech and language perception |
| terminal buttons | The tiny swellings at the end of the axon that contain chemicals important to neural transmission. |
| thalamus | A relay station in the forebrain thought to be an important gathering point for input from the senses. |
| twin studies | Identical twins, who share genetic material, are compared to fraternal twins in an effort to determine the roles heredity and environment play in psychological traits. |
| accomodation | The process through which we change or modify existing schemata to accommodate new experiences. |
| ageism | Discrimination or prejudice against an individual based on physical age. |
| assimilation | The process through which we fit—or assimilate—new experiences into existing schemata. |
| attachments | Strong emotional ties formed to one or more intimate companions. |
| concrete operational period | Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, lasting from ages 7 to 11. Children acquire the capacity to perform a number of mental operations but still lack the ability for abstract reasoning. |
| conventional level | In Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the stage in which actions are judged to be right or wrong based on whether they maintain or disrupt the social order. |
| cross-sectional design | A research design which people of different ages are compared at the same time. |
| demetia | Physically based losses in mental functioning. |
| development | The age-related physical, intellectual, social, and personal changes that occur throughout an individual’s lifetime. |
| egocentrism | The tendency to see the world from one’s own unique perspective only; a characteristic of thinking in the preoperational period of development. |
| embryonic period | The period of prenatal development lasting from implantation to the end of the eighth week. |
| fetal period | The period of prenatal development lasting from the ninth week until birth. |
| formal operational period | Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development; thought processes become adultlike, and people gain mastery over abstract thinking. |
| gender roles | Specific patterns of behavior that are consistent with how society dictates males and females should act. |
| germinal period | The period in prenatal development from conception to implantation of the fertilized egg in the wall of the uterus. |
| habituation | The decline in responsiveness to a stimulus that is repeatedly presented. |
| longitudinal design | A research design in which the same people are studied or tested repeatedly over time. |
| menopause | The period during which a woman’s menstrual cycle slows down and finally stops. |
| morality | The ability to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate actions. |
| object permanence | The ability to recognize that objects still exist when they’re no longer in sight. |
| personal identity | A sense of who one is as an individual and how well one measures up against peers. |
| postconventional level | Kohlberg’s highest level of moral development, in which moral actions are judged on the basis of a personal code of ethics that is general and abstract and that may not agree with societal norms. |
| preconventional level | In Kohlberg’s theory, the lowest level of moral development, in which decisions about right and wrong are made primarily in terms of external consequences. |
| preoperational period | Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, lasting from ages 2 to about 7; children begin to think symbolically but often lack the ability to perform mental operations such as conservation. |
| principle of conservation | The ability to recognize that the physical properties of an object remain the same despite superficial changes in the object’s appearance. |
| puberty | The period during which a person reaches sexual maturity and is potentally capable of producing offspring. |
| schemata | Mental models of the world that we use to guide and interpretour experiences. |
| sensorimotor period | Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age; schemata revolve around sensory and motor abilities. |
| strange situational test | Gradually subjecting a child to a stressful situation and observing his or her behavior toward the parent or caregiver. This test is used to classify children according to type of attachment—secure, resistant, avoidant, or disorganized/disoriented. |
| temperament | A child’s general level of emotional reactivity. |
| teratogens | Environmental agents—such as disease organisms or drugs—that can potentially damage the developing embryo or fetus. |
| zygote | The fertilized human egg, containing 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 chromosomes from the mother. |
| absolute threshold | The level of intensity that lifts a stimulus over the threshold of conscious awareness; it’s usually defined as the intensity level at which people can detect the presence of the stimulus 50% of the time |
| accomodation | In vision, the process through which the lens changes its shape temporarily to help focus light on the retina. |
| basilar membrane | A flexible membrane running through the cochlea that, through its movement, displaces the auditory receptor cells, or hair cells. |
| binocular depth cues | Cues for depth that depend on comparisons between the two eyes. |
| blind spot | The point where the optic nerve leaves the back of the eye. |
| bottom-up processing | Processing that is controlled by the physical message delivered to the senses |
| brightness | The aspect of the visual experience that changes with light intensity; in general, as the intensity of light increases, so does its perceived brightness. |
| chemoreceptors | Receptor cells that react to invisible molecules scattered about in the air or dissolved in liquids, leading to the senses of smell and taste. |
| cochlea | The bony, snail-shaped sound processor in the inner ear where sound is translated into nerve impulses. |
| cold fibers | Neurons that respond to a cooling of the skin by increasing the production of neural impulses. |
| cones | Receptor cells in the central portion of the retina that transduce light energy into neural messages; they operate best when light levels are high, and they are primarily responsible for the ability to sense color. |
| convergence | A binocular cue for depth that is based on the extent to which the two eyes move inward, or converge, when looking at an object. |
| cornea | The transparent and protective outer covering of the eye. |
| dark adaptation | The process through which the eyes adjust to dim light. |
| difference threshold | The smallest detectable difference in the magnitude of two stimuli. |
| feature detectors | Cells in the visual cortex that respond to very specific visual events, such as bars of light at particular orientations |
| flavor | A psychological term used to describe the gustatory experience. Flavor is influenced by taste, smell, and the visual appearance of food, as well as by expectations about the food’s quality. |
| fovea | The “central pit” area in the retina where the cone receptors are located. |
| frequency theory | The idea that pitch perception is determined partly by the frequency of neural impulses traveling up the auditory pathway. |
| gate-control theory | The idea that neural impulses generated by pain receptors can be blocked, or gated, in the spinal cord by signals produced in the brain. |
| gestalt principles of organization | The organizing principles of perception proposed by the Gestalt psychologists. These principles include the laws of proximity, similarity, closure, continuation, and common fate. |
| gustation | The sense of taste |
| hue | The dimension of light that produces color; hue is typically determined by the wavelength of light reflecting from an object. |
| iris | The ring of colored tissue surrounding the pupil. |
| kinesthesia | In perception, the ability to sense the position and movement of one’s body parts. |
| lens | The flexible piece of tissue that helps focus light toward the back of the eye. |
| light | The small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is processed by the visual system |
| middle ear | The portion between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three small bones (the malleus, incus, and stapes) that help to intensify and prepare the sound vibrations for passage into the inner ear. |
| monocular depth cues | depth cues Cues for depth that require input from only one eye. |
| olfaction | The sense of smell. |
| opponent-process theory | A theory of color vision proposing that cells in the visual pathway increase their activation levels to one color and decrease their activation levels to another color—for example, increasing to red and decreasing to green. |
| pain | An adaptive response by the body to any stimulus that is intense enough to cause tissue damage. |
| perception | The collection of processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of sensations. |
| perceptual constancy | Perceiving the properties of an object to remain the same even though the physical properties of the sensory message are changing. |
| perceptual illusions | Inappropriate interpretations of physical reality. Perceptual illusions often occur as a result of the brain’s using otherwise adaptive organizing principles. |
| phi phenomenon | An illusion of movement that occurs when stationary lights are flashed in succession. |
| pinna | The external flap of tissue normally referred to as the “ear”; it helps capture sounds. |
| pitch | The psychological experience that results from the auditory processing of a particular frequency of sound |
| place theory | The idea that the location of auditory receptor cells activated by movement of the basilar membrane underlies the perception of pitch. |
| psychophysics | A field of psychology in which researchers search for ways to describe the transition from the physical stimulus to the psychological experience of that stimulus. |
| pupil | The hole in the center of the eye that allows light to enter. |
| receptive field | In vision, the portion of the retina that, when stimulated, causes the activity of higher order neurons to change. |
| recognition by components | The idea proposed by Biederman that people recognize objects perceptually via smaller components called geons |
| retina | The thin layer of tissue that covers the back of the eye and contains the lightsensitive receptor cells for vision. |
| retinal disparity | A binocular cue for depth that is based on location differences between the images in each eye. |
| rods | Receptor cells in center of retina that turn light energy into neural messages |
| semicircular canals | A receptor system attached to the inner ear that responds to movement and acceleration and to changes in upright posture. |
| sensations | The elementary components, or building blocks, of an experience (such as a pattern of light and dark, a bitter taste, or a change in temperature). |
| sensory adaptation | he tendency of sensory systems to reduce sensitivity to a stimulus source that remains constant. |
| signal detection | A technique used to determine the ability of someone to detect the presence of a stimulus. |
| sound | The physical message delivered to the auditory system; a mechanical energy that requires a medium such as air or water in order to move. |
| taste buds | The receptor cells on the tongue. |
| top-down processing | Processing that is controlled by one’s beliefs and expectations about how the world is organized. |
| transduction | The process by which external messages are translated into the internal language of the brain. |
| trichromatic theory | A theory of color vision proposing that color information is extracted by comparing the relative activations of three different types of cone receptors |
| tympanic membrane | The eardrum, which responds to incoming sound waves by vibrating. |
| vestibular sacs | Organs of the inner ear that contain receptors thought to be primarily responsible for balance. |
| visual acuity | The ability to process fine detail in vision. |
| warm fibers | Neurons that respond vigorously when the temperature of the skin increases. |
| Weber's law | States that the ability to notice a difference in magnitude of two stimuli is a constant proportion of the size of the standard stimulus |
| activation-synthesis hypothesis | The idea that dreams represent the brain’s attempt to make sense of the random patterns of neural activity generated during sleep. |
| alpha waves | The pattern of brainactivity observed in someone who is in a relaxed state. |
| attention | The internal processes used to set priorities for mental functioning. |
| attend deficit/hyperactivity disorder | A psychological disorder marked by difficulties in concentrating or in sustaining attention for extended periods; can be associated with hyperactivity. |
| automaticity | Fast and effortless processing that requires little or no focused attention. |
| biological clocks | Brain structures that schedule rhythmic variations in bodily functions by triggering them at the appropriate times. |
| circadian rhythms | Biological activities that rise and fall in accordance with a 24-hour cycle. |
| cocktail party effect | The ability to focus on one auditory message and ignore others; also refers to the tendency to notice when your name suddenly appears in a message that you’ve been actively ignoring. |
| consciousness | The subjective awareness of internal and external events. |
| delta activity | The pattern of brain activity observed in stage N3 sleep; it’s characterized by synchronized slow waves. Also called slow-wave sleep. |
| depressants | A class of drugs that slow or depress the ongoing activity of the central nervous system. |
| dichotic listening | Different auditory messages are presented separately and simultaneously to each ear. The person’s task is to repeat aloud one message while ignoring the other. |
| drug dependency | A condition in which one experiences a physical or a psychological need for continued use of a drug. |
| drug tolerance | An adaptation made by the body to compensate for the continued use of a drug, such that increasing amounts of the drug are needed to produce the same physical and behavioral effects. |
| hallucinogens | A class of drugs that tendsto disrupt normal mental and emotional functioning, including distorting perception and altering reality |
| hypersomnia | A chronic condition marked by excessive sleepiness. |
| hypnosis | A form of social interaction that produces a heightened state of suggestibility in a willing participant |
| hypnotic dissociation | A hypnotically induced splitting of consciousness during which multiple forms of awareness exist. |
| hypnotic hypermnesia | The supposed enhancement in memory that occurs under hypnosis; there is little if any evidence to support the existence of this effect. |
| insomnia | A chronic condition marked by difficulties in initiating or maintaining sleep, lasting for a period of at least one month. |
| latent content | According to Freud, the true psychological meaning of dream symbols. |
| manifest content | According to Freud, the actual symbols and events experienced in a dream. |
| meditation | A technique for self-induced manipulation of awareness, often used for the purpose of relaxation and self-reflection. |
| narcolepsy | A rare sleep disorder characterized by sudden extreme sleepiness. |
| night terrors | Terrifying experiences, which occur mainly in children, in which the sleeper awakens suddenly in an extreme state of panic. |
| nightmares | Frightening and anxiety-arousing dreams that occur primarily during the REM stage of sleep. |
| opiates | Drugs that reduce anxiety, lower sensitivity to pain, and elevate mood; opiates often act to depress nervous system activity |
| psychoactive drugs | Drugs that affect behavior and mental processes through alterations of conscious awareness. |
| REM rebound | The tendency to increase time spent in REM sleep after REM deprivation. |
| REM sleep | A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and low-amplitude, irregular EEG patterns resembling those found in the waking brain. REM is typically associated with dreaming. |
| sleepwalking | The sleeper arises during sleep and wanders about. |
| stimulants | A class of drugs that increase central nervous system activity, enhancing neural transmission. |
| theta waves | The pattern of brain activity observed in stage N1 sleep. |
| visual neglect | A complex disorder of attention characterized by a tendency to ignore things that appear on one side of the body (usually the left side). |
| withdrawal | Physical reactions, such as sweating, vomiting, changes in heart rate, or tremors, that occur when a person stops taking certain drugs after continued |
| classical conditioning | A set of procedures used to investigate how organisms learn about the signaling properties of events. Classical conditioning involves learning relations between events—conditioned and unconditioned stimuli—that occur outside of one’s control. |
| conditioned inhibition | Learning that an event signals the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. |
| conditioned reinforcer | A stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through prior learning. |
| conditioned response | The acquired response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the unconditioned stimulus. |
| conditioned stimulus | The neutral stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus during classical conditioning. |
| discriminative stimulus | The stimulus situation that sets the occasion for a response to be followed by reinforcement or punishment. |
| extinction | Presenting a conditioned stimulus repeatedly, after conditioning, without the unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a loss in responding. |
| fixed-interval schedule | A schedule in which the reinforcement is delivered for the first response that occurs following a fixed interval of time. |
| fixed-ratio schedule | A schedule in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is fixed and does not change. |
| habituation | The decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar through repeated exposure. |
| law of effect | If a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened. If a response in a particular situation is followed by an unsatisfying consequence, it will be weakened. |
| learning | A relatively permanent change in behavior, or potential behavior, that results from experience. |
| modeling | The natural tendency to imitate the behavior of significant others. |
| negative punishment | An event that, when removed after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again. |
| negative reinforcement | An event that, when removed after a response, increases the likelihood of that response occurring again. |
| observational learning | Learning by observing the experience of others. |
| operant conditioning | A procedure for studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own voluntary actions (also called instrumental conditioning). |
| partial reinforcement schedule | A schedule in which reinforcement is delivered only some of the time after the response has occurred. |
| positive punishment | An event that, when presented after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again. |
| positive reinforcement | An event that, when presented after a response, increases the likelihood of that response. |
| punishment | Consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again. |
| reinforcement | Response consequences that increase the likelihood of responding in a similar way again. |
| schedule of reinforcement | A rule that is used to determine when particular responses will be reinforced. |
| second-order conditioning | A procedure in which an established conditioned stimulus is used to condition a second neutral stimulus. |
| sensitization | Increased responsiveness, or sensitivity, to an event that has been repeated. |
| shaping | A procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response. |
| spontaneous recovery | The recovery of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus. |
| stimulus generalization | Responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established conditioned stimulus. |
| unconditioned response | A stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training. |
| unconditioned stimulus | The observable response that is produced automatically, prior to training, on presentation of an unconditioned stimulus. |
| variable-interval schedule | A schedule in which the allotted time before a response will yield reinforcement varies from trial to trial. |
| variable-ratio schedule | A schedule in which a certain number of responses are required for reinforcement, but the number of required responses typically changes. |
| orienting response | An inborn tendency to notice and respond to novel or surprising events. |
| stimulus discrimination | Responding differently to a new stimulus than how one responds to an established conditioned stimulus. |
| amnesia | Forgetting that is caused by physical problems in the brain, such as those induced by injury or disease. |
| anterograde amnesia | Memory loss for events that happen after the point of physical injury. |
| chunking | A short-term memory strategy that involves rearranging incoming information into meaningful or familiar patterns. |
| cued recall | A testing condition in which people are given an explicit retrieval cue to help them remember. |
| decay | The proposal that memories are forgotten or lost spontaneously with the passage of time. |
| distinctiveness | Refers to how unique or different a memory record is from other things in memory. Distinctive memory records tend to be recalled well. |
| distributed practice | Spacing the repetitions of to-be-remembered information over time. |
| echoic memory | The system that produces and stores auditory sensory memories. |
| elaboration | An encoding process that involves the formation of connections between to-be-remembered input and other information in memory. |
| encoding | The processes that determine and control how memories are formed. |
| episodic memory | A memory for a particular event, or episode, that happened to you personally, such as remembering what you ate for breakfast this morning or where you went on vacation last year. |
| explicit memory | Conscious, willful remembering. |
| flashbulb memories | Rich memory records of the circumstances surrounding emotionally significant and surprising events. |
| forgetting | The loss of accessibility to previously stored material. |
| free recall | A testing condition in which a person is asked to remember information without explicit retrieval cues. |
| iconic memory | The system that produces and stores visual sensory memories. |
| implicit memory | Remembering that occurs in the absence of conscious awareness or willful intent. |
| long-term memory | The system used to maintain information for extended periods of time. |
| memory | The capacity to preserve and recover information. |
| memory span | The number of items that can be recalled from short-term memory in their proper presentation order on half of the tested memory trials. |
| method of loci | A mnemonic device in which you choose some pathway, such as moving through the rooms in your house, and then form visual images of the to-be-remembered items sitting in locations along the pathway. |
| mnemonic devices | Special mental tricks that help people think about material in ways that improve later memory. Most mnemonic devices require the use of visual imagery. |
| peg-word method | A mnemonic device in which you form visual images connecting to-be-remembered items with retrieval cues, or pegs. |
| primacy effect | The better memory of items near the beginning of a memorized list. |
| proactive interference | A process in which the formation of new memories hurts the recovery of old memories. |
| procedural memory | Knowledge about how to do things, such as riding a bike or swinging a golf club. |
| recency effect | The better memory of items near the end of a memorized list. |
| rehearsal | A strategic process that helps to maintain short-term memories indefinitely through the use of internal repetition. |
| retrieval | The processes that determine and control how memories are recovered and translated into performance. |
| retroactive interference | A process in which the formation of new memories hurts the recovery of old memories. |
| retrograde amnesia | Memory loss for events that happened prior to the point of brain injury. |
| schema | An organized knowledge structure in long-term memory. |
| semantic memory | Knowledge about the world, stored as facts that make little or no reference to one’s personal experiences. |
| sensory memory | An exact replica of an environmental message, which usually lasts for a second or less. |
| short-term memory | A limited-capacity system that we use to hold information after it has been analyzed for periods lasting less than a minute or two. |
| storage | The processes that determine and control how memories are stored and kept over time. |
| transfer-appropriate processing | The idea that the likelihood of correct retrieval is increased if a person uses the same kind of mental processes during testing that he or she used during encoding. |
| visual imagery | The processes used to construct an internal visual Image. |
| repression | A defense mechanism that individuals use, unknowingly, to push threatening thoughts, memories, and feelings out of conscious awareness. |
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